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MANUAL 

OF 

PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

ON A NEW AND EASY PLAN; 

FOR 

School©, families atib Sdf-Snstrttctars. 



BY HEZ. MUNSELL, JR. 



PEODESSE QUAM CONSPICI. 



ALBANY: 

J. MUNSELL, 58 STATE STREET. 

1851. 












Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1851, 

By Hez. Munsell, Jr., 

in the Clerk's Office, for the Northern District of New- York. 



PREFACE. 



While but few instances of originality are expected from the 
discovery of new materials in grammar, it is confidently believed 
that many new and useful arrangements of the materials al- 
ready known and approved can be adapted to the easy incul- 
cation of grammatical knowledge. To imprint on the memory 
and understanding of the learner an image of the most pro- 
minent features of the etymological part is one principal design 
of the writer of this treatise. This he seeks to effect by an 
analytical and synthetical view of its principal topics reduced 
to as narrow a compass as may consist with perspicuity. Placing 
those topics in juxta-position and close proximity renders them 
easier of access to a beginner, than scattering them over several 
pages with explanations of each at inconvenient distances. In 
the explanations here given in columns under the principal 
subjects brief and plain definitions are sought, referring the 
learner in due time to various annotations upon the parts of 
speech and syntactical rules. Having acquired the essentials 
of the parts of speech thus defined, by attentively viewing and 
retaining in memory the synthetical text contained in the 
synopsis of etymology, and by suitable exercises, the learner's 
progress is made easy and ultimately successful, as experience 
has demonstrated. More than half of the acquisition of a com- 
petent grammatical knowledge is obtained in the etymological 
part; hence, the special utility of bringing that part immediately 
home to the understanding and memory of the student. In the 
syntactical part of the work, it is believed, the rules aud notes 
will suffice for parsing all sentences and phrases expected to 



4 Preface. 

occur. Though most writers agree in the essentials of grammar 
there are a few controverted points for the defence of either side 
of which a hundred grammars, ancient and modern, may be 
cited, — leaving the disputed points still unsettled. It is, how- 
ever, generally easy to distinguish needless innovations from 
established use. 

The writer of this Manual has consulted a respectable 
number of the best philological works, with a sedulous and 
candid attention, and without aiming at a servile, sequacious 
tread in the footsteps of others, has yet endeavored to profit by 
their labors. This is a modification and enlargement of a treatise, 
published many years since, by the writer of this, for his friends 
of" the olden time," whose approbation of it is sensibly remem- 
bered; and whose descendants, as well as his own, and all the 
patrons of this brief literary attempt, he trusts, may derive some 
benefit from this renewal of his labors. He had prepared most 
of the materials for this book before the weight of declining 
years admonished him of the near approach of the night in 
which no man can work. He does not suppose he has pro- 
duced a work which "neither fire, nor flood, nor the corroding 
tooth of time shall be able to destroy ;" when he appreciates the 
excellence of others, and when he considers the probable mu- 
tations of language, the capricious affectation of innovators 
upon approved and long established usage, and the shifting 
changes of literary as well as other fashions which bid defiance 
to abler conservative pens, than any which he assumes to hold; 
but, if he shall contribute with others to the advancement ot 
useful education by furnishing his friends and the public with 
what the title page proposes, his main design will be accom- 
plished and his ambition satisfied. How well he has succeeded 
in this design, the judgment of a discerning public will decide. 

Hoosick Falls, N. Y», 
December, 1850, 



GRAMMAR 



English Grammar, united with rhetoric, teaches to 
speak, read and write the English language with pro- 
priety and elegance. It is the law of the language, 
established by national custom and the usage of the 
learned, and consists of four principal parts — Ortho- 
graphy, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody. Orthography, 
or true spelling, is learned chiefly from spelling books and 
dictionaries, from notice of good composition, and from 
oral teaching. Etymology explains the ten classes or 
parts of speech, to which words belong, viz : articles, 
nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, adverbs, 
prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. The word, 
etymology, also expresses the derivation of words. Syntax 
teaches the formation of correct and elegant sentences. 
Prosody teaches the just pronunciation of words and the 
principles of English verse. From the order in which 
the subjects of grammar may be conveniently and me- 
thodically explained, it may consist of six parts, Ortho- 
graphy, Orthoepy, Etymology, Syntax, Punctuation and 
Orthometry. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography, or true spelling, explains the elementary 
sounds of language and the use of the alphabet, in the 
formation of syllables and words. The English alphabet, 
the name of which comes from Alpha and Beta the two 
first letters of the Greek, contains twenty-six letters; 
principally borrowed from the Roman, the characters, 
great and small, and their names being well known, and 



*> ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

therefore requiring no insertion. A perfect alphabet 
would contain a character for every simple sound and no 
more. In this respect our alphabet is defective; one 
character representing several different sounds, as a has 
its own sound in late, another sound in hall, and another 
in art; while some sounds have no single character to 
represent them, as the sound of ng in song ; and the 
sound of th in them, &c. And one sound is sometimes 
represented by several characters, as j in jest has the 
same sound as g in gentle. The letters a, e, t, o, u, are 
called vowels, and so is y in the midst and at the end of 
syllables, and w at the end of syllables. The other letters 
are consonants, as are w and y at the beginning of sylla- 
bles. The consonants /, I, m, n, r, s, v, z, and the com- 
binations ng, th and sh are semi-vowels, as are w and y 
when they are consonants. The other consonants are 
called mutes, because their sounds can not be prolonged. 
A vowel is a sound which can be continued at pleasure, 
without any contact of the organs of speech, or change 
of their position. The sound of the semi-vowels can be 
continued at pleasure with some contact of the organs. 
A proper diphthong is a union of two sounded vowels in 
one syllable, as oi in voice and ow in now. If one of the 
vowels be silent, the union of the vowels is an improper 
diphthong, as ai in laid ; the letter i in that word merely 
denoting the long or natural sound of a. The meeting of 
three vowels in a syllable is called a triphthong, as in 
view, though but two of the vowels are sounded. In the 
word heau, neither of the vowels has its own natural 
sound ; some of the vowels are arbitrarily made by cus- 
tom to represent other vowel sounds very different from 
their own, so that we have just eight simple vowel 
sounds, excluding i and u long as being diphthongs ; long 
i being composed of short u in tun, and short i m tin, as 
the pronoun J is pronounced in common discourse. Some 
writers, by mistake or inattention, have considered the 
sound in that pronoun to be those of a in hall and e in 
me. Others have erroneously said, the sounds are those of 
a in art and e in me. Long u, as in tune, is composed 
of short i in pin and oo in book. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



All the vowe sounds, eight in number, are exemplified 
in italics, in the following table or scheme, and the several 
uses to which the characters, called vowels, are applied, 
concisely explained. 

a long, or natural, 



in late, 
and a short qua- 
lity of the same, 
as in many and 
any; 



short in at, 
and a long qua- 
lity, 
wear: 



fair. 



broad in all, 
and a short 
quality, in 
what ; 



flat or Italian a, in art, 
and a feeble sound 
of short t*, in liar, 
(see No. 8). 



e long as in me, 
short quality, in 
England ; 



short in met, 
being the short 
quality of a, in 
late (No. 1); 



t in obey, 
used for long a, 
(see No. 1); 



t in there, 
used for a, in 
fair, (see No. 
2). 



t (diphthong) 
long in pt'ne, 
being short u and 
short quality of long 
e or short i; 

o long, 

6 
as in Rome, 



short in pin, 
being the short 
quality of long e, 
(see No. 5) ; 



French sound of t in machine, 
being the same as long e, 
(see No. 5). 



short in not, 



o in move, or oo in room, o in done, or oo 



same 
what, 

3); 



as a, in 
(see No. 



and a short qua- 
lity, in home ; 

u (diphthong) 

8 
long as in twne short sound in Xim, u in full 

being short, i and oo- : I being short quality, 
. I of oo in fool, (see 
I No. 7); 



short quality in 
book; 



same as short 
tt, (see No. 

8). 



y long, as in Clyde, 

same as long i ; 



u in bury, 
same as short e in met, 
or short quality of a, in 
many, (see No. 1). 

short, in hypocrite, 
same as short i, in pin, being the 
short quality of e long (see No. 5) . 



W, at the end of syllables, is the same as oo in book, and in such 
situations makes part of a diphthong as in few, new, the diphthong in 
the last word being composed of o. in not, and oo in book; but many 
of the learned, as well as the unlearned, use the sound of a in at, and 
oo in book, in this word; and in all instances of the diphthongs ou 
and ow. Though all vowel sounds, whether denominated long or 
short, may be prolonged at pleasure, yet the long and short sounds, 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

so called, as of long o in note and short o in not, are supposed to be 
well understood, but these short sounds are to be understood as 
entirely different from the short qualities of the vowels as exemplified 
in the foregoing table. Those qualities nearly resembling the long 
sounds are accounted the same while the so termed short sound of a 
vowel, as of o in not has no resemblance of its long sound in note. 
The exercise of prolonging the vowel sounds and diphthongs, and the 
semi-vowels has been found useful. Beside the use of some vowels 
for others, as seen in the foregoing examples, these are often silent 
and used merely like e final at the end of words, to denote the long 
or natural sound of a preceding vowel, as e final in late, mate, and 
silent i in laid, maid, and silent a in lead, mead. 

SOUNDS OF THE CONSONANTS. 

I?, has but one sound as in book. It is sometimes silent as in debt, 
and when silent, sometimes, denotes the long sound of the preceding 
vowel, as in climft. 

C, has three sounds: 1st, of k in care 5 2d, of * in cedar; 3d, of 
$h in social. 

D, has but one sound as in deed, except when sounded like t at the 
end of some words, as tripped, slipped, which words sometimes end 
in t. 

.F, has its own natural sound, except in the word of, and is some 
times arbitrarily represented by pk. and gh, as in Philip, laughter 

G, has two sounds — one in gold, the other in gentle. 

J/, is a mark of aspiration, as in hat, except when combined witn 
c, as in chat. It is silent at the beginning of some words, as in honor. 

J, has the sound of soft g, as in joy, composed of d and of s in 
osier, except when it is sounded in hallelujah like the consonant g. 
Its place was formerly occupied by the letter i. 

JRf, has but one sound, as in keep, it is silent before n as in know- 
ledge. 

X, has but one sound, as in love. It is sometimes silent as in walk. 
It is doubled at the end of monosyllables, as in mill, hill, except 
when preceded by a diphthong, as in hail, sail. 

M, has but one sound, as in memory, except in the word comp- 
troller; and is never silent except in the first syllable of the word, 
mnemonics. 

iV, has but one sound, as in pen. At the end of a syllable it is 
silent after m, as in hymn. 

P, has but one sound, as in paper, and is sometimes mute as in 
psalm. When united with /i, the combination has the sound of /, 
as in Philip, except in Stephen. 

Q, is always followed by it, and is sounded like k, as in question. 

J?, has but one sound, as in Rome, and is never silent. 

&, has four sounds: 1st, its natural sound as in say; 2d, like z as in 
rose; 3d, its sound in osier; 4th, like sh as in passion. 

T, has four sounds: 1st, its natural sound, as in tall; 2d, like s in 
satiety; 3d, like sh, as nation; 4th, like cA, as in question. 






ORTHOGRAPHY. 9 

F, has but one sound, as in very. The Romans used the form for 
w, as Jvlivs (Julius). 

PT, as a consonant, has but one sound, as in wood. It has the 
power of oo, accompanied by a slight labial compression and an 
emission of breath. 

X, is a compound of the powers of k and s, as in box, but is 
sounded like z in Xerxes; and sometimes like gz, as in exist. 

Z, has its own natural sound, as in zeal; and a sound a little dif- 
ferent in azure. 

£, this is a character standing for and or et . 

Rules for the sounds and various uses of the letters, 
including rules for spelling and pronunciation, are given 
in extensive philological treatises, transcending the pro- 
per limits of a practical work of this kind, but as a 
recurrence to some general rules of spelling is often 
found convenient, the following rules are presented: — 

1st. Monosyllables,* ending with /, I, or s, after a sin- 
gle vowel double the final consonant as staff, hill, grass, 
except / in of and if, and except s in as, is, has, his, this, 
us, thus, yes. Other consonants ending monosyllables, 
after single vowels, are never doubled, excepting in the 
words, add, ebb, egg, butt, (a measure) odd, err and inn, 
(a tavern). 

2d. All derivatives f in less, ness, ly and ful, coming 
from words ending in 11, have one I only, as fulness from 
full, skilful from skill. 

3d. Participles in ing, derived from verbs ending in e, 
drop the e in spelling the participle, as having from have, 
writing from write, &c. ; and e is also omitted in deriva- 
tives ending in ish, as knavish, slavish, &c, but ee is 
retained, as seeing, agreeing. 

4th. The letter y, after a consonant, is commonly- 
changed into i in derivatives, as happily from happy, and 
into ies in the plural of nouns and third person singular 
of verbs, as glories from glory, denies from deny. 

5th. When a word whose last syllable is accented ends 

* Monosyllables are words of one syllable. 

t Derivatives are words coming from others called primitives, as 
from great comes greatness. 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

with a single consonant after a single vowel, that con- 
sonant is doubled in the derivative, as penning from pen, 
beginning from begin. 

A syllable may be defined the sound of one vowel or 
proper diphthong, together with such sounded consonants 
as are united with such vowel or diphthong. When a 
consonant ends an accented syllable, the single vowel is 
said to have its short sound as o in not, but if the vowel 
end the syllable, it has its long or natural sound, as o in 
no, unless it be allied to the consonant in the next sylla- 
ble, as in tra-gedy, veracity. 

The direction to divide words into syllables according 
to the pronunciation is a general rule, rather indefinite, 
and perhaps a Little preposterous, when it supposes the 
reader always to understand the pronunciation previous 
to the aid of any definite rules for the division of a word 
into syllables. The habit of spelling words already 
divided affords a valuable substitute for precise rules, 
but must fail to guide to the pronunciation of many 
words with which the reader may remain unacquainted, 
which may not have been divided for him in his lessons 
in spelling. 

The following rules, most of which are of long stand- 
ing, may therefore assist in pronunciation and writing; 
being a part or orthoepy, a branch of prosody so closely 
connected with orthography, as to be placed in this con- 
nection, by several approved writers, on prosodial 
grammar. 

Rule 1st. A consonant, in words of more than one 
syllable between two vowels, goes to the last, as ha-bit, 
de-note ; but if the reader previously know, it will agree 
with the pronunciation, it may go to either vowel, as 
hab-it ; but the letter x and the consonants in words 
compounded, always go to the preceding vowel, as in 
ex-ist, unequal. 

2d. When two or three consonants proper to begin a 
word, meet between two vowels, the consonants go to the 
last of those vowels, as in geo-graphy, description ; but 
one of such consonants may go to the accented syllable 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 11 

when the vowel in that syllable is known to be short, as 
in theoc-racy.* 

Note. — The combinations of consonants fit to begin a 
syllable are forty-two in number, viz : bl, br, ch, chr, cl, cr, 
dr,dw,fl,fr, gl, gn, gr, kn, ph, pi, pr, rh, sc, sh, sk, si, sm, 
sn, sp, sq, st, sw, th, tr, tw, wh, wr, phr, sch, scr, shr, spl, 
spr, str, thr, thw. When gn, kn or wr begin a syllable, 
g, k or w is silent. 

3d. Two consonants not fit to begin a syllable, meeting 
between two vowels, must be parted in dividing the 
word, as ab-sent, ignorant. 

4th. When three or four consonants not proper to 
begin a syllable meet between two vowels, the first con- 
sonant is kept with the first syllable in the division, as 
in ab-stinence, mer-chant, em-phasis. 

5th. Two vowels coming together, not making a diph- 
thong, must of course be divided, as in di-al, di-urnal; 
but eo, though no diphthong, may not be divided, in peo- 
ple, enfeoff. 

The primitive part of a word is commonly separated 
from the derivative, as in stand- ard, teach -er, exist-ence. 
The terminations sion, Hon, tial, rial and cian, are kept 
separate from the other syllables. 

Of Accent. 

Accent is a greater stress of the voice upon some syl- 
lable than upon any other of the same word, as in conser- 
vative, the accent is on the second syllable. A secondary 
feeble accent is often placed on some part of a polysylla- 
ble,! as in exemplification ; a secondary or half accent, so 
called, is on the second syllable, while the full accent is 
on the fifth. A familiar understanding of what accent 
is, may be acquired by a few exercises in placing the 
accent on unaccented syllables, to perceive the contrast 
between true and false accent. 

v Much has been said of accented consonants when the 
preceding vowels are short, as in habit, and of accented 

* It neither conforms to the rule, nor leads to the true pronuncia- 
tion, to place g nor c in the first syllable in magic, acid, fyc. 
t A polysyllable is a word of many syllables. 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

vowels when they are long, as in glory ; but with deference 
to almost universal authority, it is supposed the accent 
may always be said to fall on the vowel, only as being 
the most audible sound in the syllable, while it is deemed 
impracticable to exert much voice upon the consonants, 
especially those called mutes, though they ought to be 
c stinctly heard. The consideration of long and short 
quantity is chiefly confined to the reading of the classics. 
To the distinction of accent in dictionaries the reader 
must generally refer, but some rules of accentuation may 
be useful in this place. 

1. In dissyllables,* when a double consonant is divided 
between the syllables the first is accented, as in better, 
cherry, college; and when other consonants are thus 
divided, the accent is commonly on the first, as amber, 
absent, except some verbs as to absent. 

2. Trisyllablesf and polysyllables having the termination 
ance, are generally accented on the antepenult J syllable, 
as in elegance, significance, but when the primitive part 
of the word is accented on the last syllable, the derivative 
has it on the penult,§ as appearance from appear, reliance 
from rely ; also when the termination is preceded by two 
consonants, as abundance, discordance. 

3. Polysyllables having the termination ence, are com- 
monly accented on the antepenult, as magnificence, coin- 
cidence; and those of other terminations are frequently 
accented in the like manner, on the antepenult, as anti- 
cipate, antistrophe, metropolitan; but polysyllables and 
other words ending in Hon, sion, cian, cial, tious and 
cious, are commonly accented on the penult, as ampli- 
fication, comprehension, physician, official, superstitious, 
officious. 

4. Scripture names of persons and places, and their 
derivatives, having the terminations ea, ean, ia, as, eus, 
ah, or aus, are accented on the penult syllable, as Chaldea, 
Chaldean, Iturea, Sophia, Elias, Alpheus, Jeremiah, 
Hezekiah, Archelaus. 

* Dissyllables are words of two syllables. 

t Trisyllables are words of three syllables. 

| The antepenult is the last syllable but two, in any word. 

$ The penult syllable is the last but one. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 



Of Characters frequently used in Writing and 
Printing. 

A hyphen - is a short line connecting syllables and 
compound words. 

A small - dash is put over a vowel in some dictionaries, 
to denote its long sound, as a in hate. 

A breve — put over a vowel, denotes it to be short, as 
over a in hat. 

An apostrophe ' denotes the possessive case of sub- 
stantives, as men's manners, William's book. It some- 
times denotes the omission of a letter as Heav'n for 
Heaven, 'tis for it is. 

Marks of quotation " " include words which a writer 
quotes from another as, An excellent poet says : 

" All are but parts of one stupendous whole." 

An asterisk or star, * directs a reader to some note in 
the margin or at the bottom of a page : other characters 
are used for the same purpose. It sometimes denotes the 
omission of some words, — thus, * * * The omission 
is sometimes denoted by a dotted line .... 

A brace $ connects a number of words with one 
' I common term, to prevent repetition, and 
sometimes connects three lines in poetry, called a triplet, 
having the same rhyme. 

The index or hand, (£?* points to some particular pas- 
sage. 

The caret a distinguishes the place where the writer 

are 
forgot to insert some letter or word, as they * good 
scholars. 

A diaeresis '* being two points over two vowels in a 
word, denotes them to be divided, as in Capernaum. 

The section § distinguishes the parts of a treatise, but 
the parts are sometimes numbered without the use of the 
character. 

2 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Brackets [ ] or crotchets, include some explanation 
of a foregoing word or sentence, the explanation and 
sometimes the character being called a parathesis. 

A paragraph, IT denotes the beginning of a new divi- 
sion of a chapter. It is chiefly used in the Old and New 
Testaments. That character as well as the obelisk | 
often refers to some marginal note. 

On the use of the Capital Letters. 

Our ancestors in writing and printing, used to begin 
every noun with a capital letter, and that custom is seen 
in books not very ancient ; but the custom is now discon- 
tinued, and small letters are used in all common words. 
It is, however, customary to begin, 

1st. All proper nouns with a capital, and to begin with 
a capital the first word of every book, chapter, or com- 
position. 

2d. The first word after a period. 

3d. The appellations of the Deity, as God, the Al- 
mighty, the Supreme Being, the Lord, the Messiah, the 
Holy Spirit. 

4th. Titles of honor and respect in direct addresses, 
as Sir, Your Honor, Your Excellency. 

5th. Adjectives derived from the proper names of per- 
sons, places, &c, as Roman, Grecian, English, American, 
Augustan. 

6th. Titles of books, as Thomson's Seasons, Pope's 
Essay on Criticism. 

7th. The first word of every line in poetry. 

8th. The pronoun I and the interjection O. It is said 
to be remarkable that the same pronoun in other lan- 
guages is usually written with a small letter, and that 
ours is the only language which dignifies the little hero 
with a capital. 

Particular words of importance are sometimes begun 
with a capital, as the Reformation. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 

Artium Baccalaureus — Bach- L. S. 

elor of Arls. 
Account Mat. 

Anno Domini— In the year of M. D. 

our Lord 
Artium Magister-Mnster of Arls. Messrs. 



Locus Sigilli— The place of the 

Seal. 
Matthew. 
Medieinae Doctor— Doctor of 

Medicine. 
) Gentlemen, or Sirs, or 





Ante Meridiem — Befor 


e noon. 


Messier 




Anno Mundi — In the 


year ol 


• Mr. 




the world. 




Mrs. 


Anon. 


Anonymous. 




MS. 


B. A. 


Bachelor of Arts. 




MSS. 


B.C. 


Before Christ. 




N. 


Bart 


Baronet 




N.B. 


B D. 


Baccalaureus Divinitati 


s — Bach. 






elor of Divinity 




Nov. 


C 


Centum— A hundred. 




No. 


Cwt. 


A hundred weight. 




N. S. 


Col. 


Colossians, Colonel. 




Oct. 


Cant. 


Canticles. 




o. s 


Capf. 


Captain 




P. s. 


Chap. 


Chapter. 




Pel. 


Co. 


Company, County. 




Phil. 


Chron. 


Chronicles 




Philom. 


Cr. 


Credit, Creditor. 






Dr. 


Dear, Doclor. Debtor. 






D. 


Denarius — A penny. 




PI. 


Do. 


D.tto- The same. 




P. M. 


Dee. 


December. 






Deut. 


Deuteronomy. 




Prof. 


D. D. 


Doctor Divinitatis— Doctor of 


Ps. 




Divinity. 




Q. 


D.V 


Deo volente— God will 


njr- 


Q d. 


e. jr. 


Exempli gratia— For example. 


Q 1. 


Eliz. 


Elizabeth. 






EM*. 


England, English. 




Q s. 


Epli. 


Ephesians. 






Esq. 


Esquire 




Rev. 


Ex. 


Exodus, example. 




Sen. 


Feb 


February. 




Sing. 


Fol. 


Folio (two leaves in a s 


sheet;. 


Ss. or S 


F.R S. 


Fellow of the Royal Society. 


S. 


Gal. 


Gal alia ns 




S. E. 


Gen. 


Genesis, General. 




Sept. 


Gent. 


Gentleman. 




St. 


Geo 


George. 




s.w. 


Heb. 


Hebrew 




Tho. 


Hon. 


Honorable. 




Thess. 


Ibid. 


Ibidem — The same place. 


Tim. 


id 


Idem — The same. 




Tit. 


i. e. 


Id est— That is. 




Ult. 


J. H S. 


Jesus Homin/m Salvator — Jesus U. S. 




Savior of men. 




V. 


Isa. 


Isaiah. 




Viz. 


Jos. 


Joseph. 




Vol. 


L. 


Liber, a book ; Librae, 


pounds. 


vs. 




or Lib. Liber. 




AV. 


Lev. 


Leviticus. 




Wm. 


Lat. 


Latitude. 




Yd. 


Lieut. 


Lieutenant. 




&c. 


L/L.D. 


Legum Doctor — Doctor of 


Laws, (the Roman, 


, or civil 


/ 


law or code of the 


emperor 4 to. 




Justinian.) 




8vo. 


Lon. 


Longitude. 




12mo. 



Master or Mister. 

Mistress. 

Manuscriptum — Manuscript. 

M anuscripta— Manuscripts. 

Nota— Note. 

Nota bene — Note well, or Take 

special notice. 
November. 
Nnmero — Number. 
New Style. 
October. 
Old Style 

Postscriptum— Postscript. 
Pe'er. 

Philip, Philipians. 
Philomathes — A lover of learn. 

ing ; or Philomathematicus, a 

lover of the mathematics. 
Plural. 
Post Merid iem, — Afternoon, 

Postmaster. 
Professor 
Psalm. 
Question. 

Quasi dicat — As if he should say. 
Quantum libel — as much as you 

please. 
Quantum sufficit — A sufficient 

quantity. 
Reverend, Revelations. 
Senior 
Singular. 
.Scilicet — To wit. 
South ; Solid as — A shilling. 
Southeast. 
September. 
Saint, Street 
Southwest. * 
Thomas. 
Thessalonians. 
Timothy. 
Titus. 

Ultimo — Last. 
United States. 
Vide— See. 

Videlicet— To wit, namely. 
Volume 

Versus — Against. 
West. 
William. 
Yard. 
El CHetera— And so forth; after 

a list of males, read et cseteri ; 

after females, et cseterse. 
Quarto — Four leaves in a sheet. 
Octavo — Eight leaves. 
Duodecimo. 



16 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 












« to ai . 




. CU «i-i co 














*« % <v e 




|-H^§ 




<a o p_c ra 




*8 4) d . 2 


. 


I^^SI 


BQ 


±J ° JS 




.2^ § 

Co 


O 

55 


c_> .5 "2 T3 




•- C S3 S3 
t C ri 3 


S 







t3 0> 




u »- 






o 


.. ,a 


o 


•~ -3 2 


i 


ST> w ej O 


h 


•« — ' cd S3 


W 


<» /p. d 


fa 
o 


2 S 

L «1 B 


BQ 


J3 -ce o 


BQ 


— __— . 


Or 

o 


^3 V cd 


fc 


!* 


«o ^ 


<72 


* ill 

p r~ co +j 

.5 C o 




<*^ £ £ cd of 






w c c ? o 




•2 « tUD^ O 




"8 *« £ b 




5 g»5° 




_£; cd •-< £^ 




S — ° ~,-o 




,2 -a *-> -a 

P 4) 0< 




*t*.g - 




-s^ 




w^j o o 




kr-l -M (C rQ 



sTiT 

o 






„ bD eg cd g, -S 

•43 "° o >>m Sj o 
cd a> c »- o .Si, c 

.-h co +-> -a £L,,a o -u 



co.£ 



-a 
S 
^> 
ho 


are three, 
masculine 
or male, 
feminine 
or female, 
and neu- 


(-. 
o 


"cd 
S 

"Is 


3 


are the sing, 
which speaks 
of but one, 
as book; and 
the plural 
which ex- 


<v 

a 
B 

BO 

o> 

09 
OH 

a 

Pi 


CO 

cd 

o .. 
w 

cs o 



6» 

S 
o 

a, 

CO 

cd 


are the se- 
cond when 
addressed, as 
king, live 
for ever ; and 
the 3d when 
spoken of, 
as the king 
lives. 


1 
1 

O S 

_g cd 

s 
1 


nouns are names 
of particular per- 
sons, places, ri- 
vers, <§-c, as Ma- 
ry, London, £c. 
They are usually 
of the singular 
num., and must 
begin with a cap- 
ital letter, (c). 


substantive is 1 nouns are the 
the name of | names of whole 
any substance, classes or sorts, 
as book, pen, | as trees, birds, 
paper, or of any books. They ad- 
invisible object, | mit the article 
as faith, charity, 1 th, , before them 
happiness. | as the birds, 
the book, or 
| the books. 



s\ 



/ 



u p 

<U '** 

ft-3 

^ S 
CO "O 



O CJ 

5 « •• 

S C 05 

w 8 " 



» c c u p - 



ETYMOLOGY. 



3§ il 

»T 2 to fl 



17 



s § § «r «* » * 

s "s *_S IS <u .tj p ? 'S -p 



- N S^g'^ CiC0 ^^ 



2 

t>0 


are 3, 
as in 
nouns, 
see 3d 
person 
sing. 


a £ 

w 

a; oT 
> t» 
"■+2 o 

o> > 

v o 


i 

§ 


are 2, 
as in 
nouns. 



P to g - 4 - 1 . , • ffl © 0} 

: s g o s s = ^5 

n f S^ £<2 S^?j". 

s Ch« co -rejuid 



*».S 



^ £ c 




* e^ 


■^2 -rl 


-n s,c ^"5 


<» «} ,,_, 


compoun 
lent to th 
when t 
questions 
are calk 


onou 
nich 
e las 


£.£■5 



-I 

o % 



fto 






S-fP 

Is 



cS 



V>s g 






o cj o 
ft 5 "£' 



O T3 



.5 ^-g § i'SdJSs o£ri 



s 
-c ,2 +S J? 



<u 



<v 



§ s'iilliS'i^.i 

ftC ft C f=! £3-! C^^S 



1 "ti -T 3 - 4> 52 A 3? 4> 



iT'&Z * s p »--&■£ c S x 



c ft 



<y 



= = w ,_, >-. 4* 

° ^o t-, ^a <v QJ a> 



,*-. d O) r^ o !=! ftT3 



to o 9i ^» ,. >5 

- o a) «s 2 

" <u »- P "tj 

»- co bi) c £ 



rf^ 



W ift^£ 

S ' B S ■ ■§ 5 .-S 

o rt -3 J „«> ■ 



w|«15 



H>-rfcu-oi2<"to>%G^KJO 



0) 






CO 






33.£ 8 ~ 

-13- 






<M M ^3 O O C 



r, ±3 f= « 



•5 « 



O eS 3 

S g 






S * t- be 



o 



I ^ r- -t3 ^ ' 

1 -B ^^ c 



UJU Q 
CU rQ 



4_, +» "C> «w i 

° S S o 

£>£ 3 s 
s. d i § 

o *> O " - 

S C C X3 

»h s i « 

o « 9.-3 



4^fP 

2 ^ 



t. H) ,? « C 
J^ £r5 

"^ £ -B .to s 

O -t? fS m 
, O ^ O fcuo 1 ^ 

^n3 > ft- 3 

-o E*3R 



** 2 PS 



to ,o J 

-go «.s » 

>^ w,^ £ ^ o 

f3 cj rt cS 4) 



o -P 

bJO. 



ft 



P .5 «3 ^ .« r— , 

j_, 4) O) 03 f— i S-" 

C C w 10 B 5 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

If *§.2S & gs-2 S -oVSS 

»». S « "^Chcu ,h S bii c "2 i b b i 
©, •£ °^ o -o "5 °^ c F .5 eft cs S £ ^ ,£> ,*> 

,o"3"c , ££ , -<8i£o<i>«>-,«2:=! 
fc.ft§ S 2 g $ &2 &£££ 

* l E ^lbS8. J ,-s e 1i 

3 w <•=■ ."£ -2 E ~ .tj 3) «J £ 



.(-> « 



d O 



.5 > S a o-r-S « >» £ w 3oc 



QJ BO 



o 



O o o 



O O .C g * «> .S « O rt §5 -5 4 - w t3 § 

k„S.2 a^s J3 ^&.acJ5 , « Sep 
•S-3?=""g^ ^£-S^S ft c ~ 8 

c 



S<2- „ >wS «f~-5 a*g 2 2 « -2. 



ft-5 .so 



xcS 2 £ -2 cPrtX 3 «3>^§§«, 
•2 H CPh 'O S fcj) *, <y -a o ? ufctS 



* § s & gd 



§-a^s^ 



1 -g'Sg^sss-.-s * 



,2 



h w i. 

£ £" Q 



DO 
DO 


o 


o 


bF 2-g 




£ 


<U a, 
A CO 


(U 


fcuD 

a 


c 
.2 








11 


0. 



ETYMOLOGY. 19 

N. B. — All verbs, except the following, are called prin- 
cipal verbs, in distinction from those which are called 
auxiliary signs, or helping verbs, which are — do, be, 
have, shall, will, may, can and must. These words, with 
their inflections or variations, help to form the modes and 
tenses, for which they are called helping verbs. Do, be, 
have and will, are also used as principal verbs. Those 
principal verbs whose past tenses and past participles 
end in ed, as loved, educated, are called regular verbs, 
and all others, irregular. The combination of a past 
participle with be, or any of its variations, constitutes 
what some grammarians call a passive verb, as he is edu- 
cated, they will be rewarded. Be, is considered as an 
auxiliary when assisting thus to form the passive verb. 
It is not strictly necessary to make such a verb in our 
language, though it may be a convenient introduction to 
an easier understanding of Greek and Latin passive verbs. 
Transitive verbs are, by some, called active, and are 
accordingly distinguished in some dictionaries by the 
initials, v. a., while intransitive verbs are called neuter, 
and have the initials v. n„ but as many of those neuter 
verbs, so called, express much action, as to run, to fly, 
&c, while many that are distinguished as active, express 
little or no action, as to see, to hear, &c. The plainer 
distinction of transitive and intransitive verbs is pre- 
ferred. The division into active and neuter, transitive 
and intransitive verbs is considered unnecessary. 



A participle is of two kinds, the present or and the past or 

active passive 

participle al- I participle, sometimes called 

ways end in | the perfect, commonly ends 

ing, as writ- in ed, as moved, educated. 

ing, moving. | It has some other ending 



A participle is a word 
derived froma verb, and 
participates of the na- 
ture of a verb, a noun, 
or an adjective. 



only when it comes from an 
irregular verb. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

An adverb is a word added to verbs, to adjectives 
and to other adverbs, to affect or modify the word to 
which it is added, as very elegant, well written, &c. 
The most common adverbs are — already, always, 
asunder, downward, elsewhere, enough, ever, hence, 
here, hither, how, indeed, never, not, now, often, 
perhaps, rather, seldom, so, then, thence, there, 
thither, very, upward, when, whence, where, whilst 
or while, whither, with many that are derived from 
adjectives, and end in ly, as honestly, justly, truly, 
& c., (j). 

A preposition expresses the relation of words. 
The most common are — above, about, after, against, 
amid or amidst, among or amongst, around, at, before, 
behind, beneath, beyond, beside, but, by, for, from, in, 
into, of, on or upon, over, to or unto, toward, under, 
with, within, without. But and for, are sometimes 
conjunctions, (&). 

A conjunction connects words and sentences. The 
most common are — and, as, because, either, neither, 
if, nor, or, since, that, though, unless, whereas, whe- 
ther. And, if, because, are called copulative con- 
junctions; or, nor, either, neither, and some others 
are disjunctive, (/). 

An interjection is a sound used to denote a sudden 
passion or emotion, as 0, or Oh ! Ah ! Alas ! &c. 



NOTES ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Articles, (a) When a noun is taken its widest signi- 
fication, the articles are omitted, as man is mortal, i. e. 
all mankind. 

(b) The article the is used before common nouns, sin- 
gular and plural, but the article a is never used before 
plural nouns, except when they are preceded by the ad- 
jectives few, many, dozen, hundred, &c, and then these 
words are considered by some, as nouns, followed by of 
understood, as a few books, a great many trees, a dozen 
pens, a hundred dollars ; i. e. a dozen of pens, &c. This 



ETYMOLOGY. 21 

article is sometimes placed between the word many, and 
a singular noun, as many a bargain, many a flower, re- 
ferring to many flowers, separately not collectively, con- 
sidered. 

Nouns, (c) Proper nouns sometimes used metapho- 
rically, resembling common nouns, admit the plural num- 
ber, as the Hampdens, the Edwards ; and it they end in 
y, they form their plural by the addition of s, not ies, 
like common nouns, as 

" New Edwards and Henrys that swarm'd on the plain, 
New Cressys and Agincourts conquer'd again." 

(d) Some nouns have no singular, as ashes, tongs, 
scissors, &c. Some have no plural, as wheat, gold, pride, 
industry ; and some are the same in both numbers, as 
sheep, deer, swine, &c. 

The plural number of nouns is commonly formed by 
adding s to the singular, as books ; and es when the 
singular ends in ch, o, s, sh, or x, as churches, heroes, 
grasses, &c. Nouns which make their plural by some 
other ending are accounted irregular, as men, women, 
children, pence, &c. When the singular ends in y imme- 
diately after a consonant, the plural ends in ies, as glories, 
beauties, &c. Some nouns derived from the Greek, change 
on into a, as criterion, criteria, phenomenon, phenomena. 
Some Hebrew nouns, or Scripture names, make the plural 
by adding im to the singular, as Baal, Baalim. Some 
nouns, borrowed from the Latin, have their plural in a, 
as medium, media, stratum, strata. The following are 
the same in both numbers in both languages, apparatus, 
series, species. 

(e) The gender of doubtful nouns, as a person, a friend, 
is often explained by some preceding or subsequent word. 
The feminine gender of some nouns is denoted by their 
terminations, as empress, Jewess, administratrix. For 
the sake of distinction, inanimate objects are called neu- 
ter, but may be often accounted masculine or feminine 
by a figure of rhetoric, as the sun " spreads his orient 
beams." 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(/) The noun addressed, called the nominative case 
independent, answers to the latin vocative. When a 
present participle, in the nature of a verb, is connected 
with a noun or pronoun, it is said to be in the nominative 
case absolute to such participle, and is commonly formed 
by the omission of the particles when, while, after, because, 
&c, as they coming in he went away, or when after or be- 
cause they came in, &c. Two nouns are sometimes, but not 
very often, used together in the possessive case, as Peter's 
wife's mother, &c. When the possessor is expressed by 
more than one noun, the possessive sign is annexed to 
the latter, as the king of England's troops. When the 
nouns end in es or ss, the possessive is made thus, 
Achilles' shield ; for goodness' sake. 

Pronouns (g) The following words are, by some gram- 
marians, called definitive pronouns, viz: this, that, other, 
none, any, some. All these words, except none, are 
sometimes joined with a noun expressed, and always with 
a noun expressed or understood. When they are joined 
with a noun expressed, they may be called pronominal 
adjectives, or adjective pronouns; and so may which and 
what, as this book, that book, the other book or books, 
which book or books, what book or books. The other 
pronominal adjective or adjective pronouns are — are, my, 
thy, his, her, our, your, and their, which are derived from 
personal pronouns. Some grammarians arrange them as 
personal pronouns in the possessive case. When that 
arrangement is preferred, they may take the places of — 
mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours and theirs, which may 
then be called possessive pronouns in the nominative or 
objective case, and they will be the same in both num- 
bers, but mine and thine will become adjective pronouns 
before nouns expressed, beginning with a vowel, as blot 
out mine iniquities. Each is a distributive pronoun of 
the singular number only, unless when joined with a 
noun expressed, when it may be called a pronominal 
adjective or adjective pronoun, as each scholar, each 
book. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



23 



The definitive pronouns are thus declined : 



Nom. 
this, 
that, 
other, 
one, 
none, 
any, 



Singular, 



Poss. 
wanting, 
do. 

others', 
one's, 
wanting, 
do. 



Plural, 



Obj. 

this, 

that, 

other, 

one, 

none, 

any,' 


Nom. 
these, 
those, 
others, 


Pos.*. 
wanting, 
do. 
others', 


none, 

any. 

some, 


wanting, 

do. 

do. 



Obj. 
these, 
those, 
others, 

none, 

any, 

some. 



This and that, are often called demonstrative pro- 
nouns. This, often refers to a near object; that, to an 
object more remote. That, is sometimes used as a sub- 
stitute for several words. 

(h) The modes are commonly accounted five in num- 
ber, viz: the infinitive, the indicative, the imperative, the 
potential, and the subjunctive. The potential mode is a 
division of the indicative: it expresses the obligation, 
determination, liberty, power and necessity- of action, or 
being, and is known by the helping verbs, should, will, 
u'ould, may, might, can, could and must, or their varia- 
tions; as, / can lorite, thou may est write, &c. Hence 
these words, with the exception of should, ivill and ivould, 
may be called potential signs. Will and ivould are used 
in the potential mode, only when they are spoken with 
emphasis, or express volition, or determination. Should 
is used in this mode with and without emphasis, to ex- 
press duty or obligation ; as, you should help the poor, 
he should go to school. When it is differently used, it 
belongs to the indicative, as I should write if I had an 
opportunity. When a wish or a prayer is expressed, and 
a helping verb in the potential mode precedes the nom- 
inative word, the expression may be called the optative 
form of the potential mode ; as, may he be restored to 
health. When the helping verbs should, would, might 
and could, are used in the present tense of the potential, 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

they constitute what may be called the conditional or 
hypothetical form of that mode ; as, I might read Lucan, 
but I prefer Horace. When the same helping verbs are 
used in the present tense of the subjunctive mode, or 
when any verbs which would make past time in the 
indicative, are used in the present tense of the subjunc- 
tive, they constitute the hypothetical form of the latter; 
as, if I wrote as well as you do, I should think myself a 
good penman. Here the verb wrote is used in the 
present tense of the subjunctive mode, though it would 
make past time in the indicative. It may be remarked 
in this place, that the plural verb were is used in the sin- 
gular number of the first, second and third person, in the 
hypothetical form of this mode; as, if I were, if thou 
wert, or if he were reading, the rest might hear and be 
instructed. 

(i) Tense being the division of time, is, strictly speak- 
ing, divided only into present, past and future; yet, for 
the sake of pointing out the time of action, or being, 
with more accuracy, the past tense is commonly made 
to consist of three divisions, and the future tense of 
two, as may be seen by the following examples in each 
mode : 



ETYMOLOGY. 



25 



Mode. 

Plural 

3 12 3 
rite or write 
rites 


1 

u 

is 

3 
"o 

H 
P 


.as 

a, ^ rt 

(, a, a 




to 


r shall, shall, 
&c. &c. 

if I mar, can 


s ** 


| 


°£ 


j* 


jj 


b w 


"S s 






J8 




«1 ,5 S * 


S »"S 


1 






54 

r cj"S 


n r as 


Subj 

Persons 

1 2 

write wr 

writ 


8 


d 

11 


a 

■si 

3| 


? o 
>a Sim 


I Mode. 

Plural 
! 3 123 
yest may may 
rite write write 


8 s 

|! 

a* 

w 
<» 01 


. <r> IB 

a 

a,a-a 


a rt -s 

"S g 


d a 

CO p. . 

all 


.1 


-2 s 

1 - 4 


! 




3 pi 

a al-ti 
6 £ 


eg 

or 




3--S 


w 

=3 s » 


* a 


ei ^. ^ 
«§J§ 


1 ¥ 




e3,a-C 


•o 5 J 
A3? 


2 tc o 


S^l^ 


a 


a 


a * 


a * 


a*** 


Ss2^ 










cu 


a bT rj 


«> —i !>, . 












ve Mod 

Plura 

2 
write ; 
or you 










* » -2 a 
-a'g 2 


\«» a 








I'll" 

£5 a 


<E a e a 

*jjat; . 

T3.a ro 


Imperat 

Person 

write tho 








e. 

Plural 
12 3 

write. 


1 




■a=~ a 
a 


■at 


o3,aS 


Indicative Mod 

Persons 

12 3 
write, writest, writes, 


1 

V 

2 

1 


0} 

p 

a 

CD £> 


si 
*s 

a 
to ® 

PI 

-si 

^3'H 

1 * 


O 


a 

ai>^ 

■aa| 

? o 


Infinitive Mode. 

'resent to write, 


.2 fee 
p.* 


,a:a 
3* 


ss.a 

M 
O 


O 

o 6 o 


CO 


O M 

g.-s 


M 

Is 


5° 


1 

i 




m 


M O 

O 


Ph 


P* 


rH 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It is seen by the foregoing tabular conjugation of a 
principal verb, that it has only two forms, or states, to 
express time, consisting of the present and imperfect 
tenses, as, I write, I wrote. The other tenses of the 
indicative, as well as all the tenses of the potential, are 
expressed by combinations of auxiliaries with the prin- 
cipal verb or the participle, as I have written, I had 
written, I shall write, shall have written, I can write, 
must write, &c. In such combinations the helping verbs 
only are varied, as I can write, thou canst write, &c. The 
present tense may be tested or known in the several 
modes by the adverb now, as I write now. The imperfect 
tense may be known by placing after it the word yester- 
day, as I wrote yesterday. The perfect tense which 
denotes an action just completed, is known by the sign, 
have, combined with the past participle in the indicative 
and subjunctive, as I have written, if I have written; 
and with may have or must have in the potential, as I 
may have written, or must have written ; and by the same 
combination in the potential branch of the subjunctive, 
as, if I must have written. The pluperfect tense ex- 
presses an action done prior to another specified action, 
and in the indicative and indicative branch of the sub- 
junctive is known by the sign had, as I had written, 
if I had written, &c. ; and in the potential and potential 
branch of the subjunctive, is usually known by the signs — 
might have, or could have, as I might have written, &c, 
if I might have written, &c. ; being the sign have, pre- 
ceded by a helping verb of past time. The helping verb 
had, is sometimes used for would have, as 

Great Julius, on the mountains bred, 
A flock, perhaps, or herd hnd led. 
He who the world subdued had been, 
But the best wrestler on the green. 

i. e. if he had been bred on the mountains he would 
have led, and would have been, &c. 

Were is sometimes used for would be, as " It were 
easier to teach twenty what were good to be done, than 
to be one of the twenty to follow my own teaching. 



ETYMOLOGY. 27 

Shall, in the first person, foretels or promises. In the 
other persons it implies some authority in the speaker, 
and in asking questions, commonly inquires the will or 
pleasure of others. 

Will, in the first person, expresses volition or deter- 
mination, as we will go. In the second and third persons 
it foretels, as you will fall, he will write ; and sometimes 
with emphasis expresses volition. 

Specimen of irregular verbs with their participles and 
preterites. 
Verbs, present tense, present participles, preterites, past participles, 



arise, 
be, am, 
choose, 


aiising, 

being, 

choosing, 


arose, 

was, 

chose, 


arisen. 

been. 

chosen. 


give, 
read, 


giving, 
reading, 


gave, 
read, 


given, 
read. 


write, 


writing, 


wrote, 


written, 


imen of 


regular verbs and their participles and p 


love, 
hate, 
direct, 
educate. 


loving, 
hating, 
directing, 
educating, 


loved, 
hated, 
directed, 
educated. 


loved, 
hated, 
directed. 
• educated. 



terites 



The conjugation of a verb, which means joining it with 
its nominative in the several persons and numbers in the 
several modes and tenses, and exemplifying the tenses of 
the infinitive, is concisely shown in the foregoing table, 
but it may be amplified and further illustrated in the 
following examples, which present the definite and in- 
definite forms of the tenses, without attempting to alter 
the nomenclature which approved grammarians have 
long adopted and used. The definite form, called by 
some the progressive, is considered more definitely to 
express the time of the verb, than the other form termed 
the indefinite. The verb be, used as an auxiliary, com- 
bined with a present participle in the nature of a verb, 
constitutes the definite form. The plural pronoun you, 
is retained in the plural form only in its proper place, it 
is believed, in the following examples ; for though it is 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

often addressed to an individual — a practice which ori- 
giniated from complaisance, or as some say, from flattery, 
yet the practice assigned to that pronoun a plural verb, 
as you were instead of you was. It is true, that to depart 
from that practice can affect the form of but one verb — 
the verb to be, and that in but one tense; and it is there- 
fore supposed, that this matter does not require much 
disputation. Perhaps the conservative side of the question 
is preferable to any unnecessary innovation, not fully 
established by custom. However, any teacher, or student, 
who prefers it, can easily place the pronoun in question 
with its verb, under the pronoun thou, in the following 
conjugation : 

Conjugation of the regular verb direct, the defmito 
form of which also presents the conjugation of be* as a 
principal verb, and as an auxiliary. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 

Indefinite form. Definite form. 

To direct. To be directing. 

Perfect Tense. 

To have directed. To have been directing. 

A future tense may be made by adding some word or 
phrase expressing futurity, as to-morrow, next week, &c, 
as I intend to direct to-morrow. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 

SlNGULAB. 

I direct or do direct. I am directing. 

Thou directest or dost direct. Thou art directing. 

He, she or it directs, directeth or does or He, she or it is directing, 
doth direct. 

Plural. 

We direct or do direct. We are directing. 

Ye or you direct, £c. Ye or you are directing. 

They direct, £c. They are directing. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



^ 



Thou wast directing. 
He, £c, was directing, 



Imperfect Tense (or First Past). 
Singular,, Definite, 

1 directed, #c. I was directing. 

Thou directedst. 
He, # c -, directed. 

Plural. 

We directed. We were directing. 

Ye or you directed. Ye or you were directing. 

They directed. They were directing. 

Perfect Tense (Second Past). 
Called by some, the Present Perfect. — [Vide Perry and others.] 
Singular, 



I have directed. 

Thou hast directed. 

He, #c, has or hath directed. 

Plural. 

We have directed. 

Ye cr you have directed. 

They have directed. 



I have been directing. 
Thou hast been directing. 
He, 4-c, has or hath been 
directing. 

We have been directing. 

Ye or you have been directing. 

They have been directing. 



Pluperfect Tense (third past), 
By some called, Past Perfect. — Vide, #c. 
Singular, 



I had directed. 
Thou hadst directed. 
He, #c, had directed. 

Plural. 
We had directed. 
Ye or you had directed. 
They had directed. 



I had been directing. 
Thou hadst been directing. 
He, #c, had been directing. 

We had been directing. 

Ye or you had beeh directing. 

They had been directing. 



First Future Tense. 



Singular. 



I shall or will direct. 
Thou shalt or wilt direct. 
He, #c, shall or will direct. 

Plural. 

We shall or will direct. 

Ye or you shall or will direct. 

They shall or will direct. 



I shall or will be directing. 
Thou shalt or wilt be directing. 
He, #c, shall or will be directing. 



We shall or will be directing. 

Ye or you shall or will be directing. 

They shall or will be directing. 






30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Second Future Tense. 

Sometimes called Compound Future, and, by some, the Future 
Perfect. 
Singular. 

I shall or will have directed. I shall or will have been directing. 

Thou shalt or will have directed. Thou shalt or wilt have been di- 
rected. 
He, fyc, shall or will have di- He, fyc, shall or will have been 
rected. directing. 

Plural. 
We shall or will have directed. We shall or will have been directing. 
Ye or you shall or will have di- Ye or you shall or will have been 

rected. directing. 

They shall or will have directed. They shall or will have been di- 
recting. 

The expressions, he directs, he has directed, &c, are 
of the common or familiar style, but he directeth, hath 
directed, &c, belong to the grave or solemn style, not so 
frequently used as the familiar. The auxiliary do is used 
in the place of other verbs to avoid repetition, as he 
writes better than I do, instead of better than I write ; or 
to ask a question, as Why does he not write? or to ex- 
press emphasis in the answer, as he does write ; and some- 
times it is used in the imperative, as do write. It is 
sometimes used in a formal style, especially in poetry, 
as — 

" Where I might sit, and nightly spell 
Of every star the sky doth shew, 11 $c. 

but such use is becoming obsolete. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Singular. Definite form. 

* Direct, direct thou, do thou direct. Be or do thou be directing. 

Plural. 

Direct, direct ye, or d# ye or you Be or be ye or do you be di- 
direct. recting. 

Future time may be expressed by the additional 
words, to-morrow, next week, as do you direct to-mor- 
row, &c. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



31 



POTENTIAL MODE, (or potential branch of the indicative.) 

Present Tense. 
Indefinite. 



Definite, 
I may, can or must be directing. 
Thou mayest, canst, or must be 

directing. 
He, #c, may, can or must be 

directing. 



Sing. 
I may, can or must direct. 
Thou mayest, canst or must di 
* rect . 

He, <§-c, may, can or must di' 
rect. 

Plural. 

We may, can or must direct. We may, can or must be directing. 

Ye or you may, can or must Ye or you may, can or must be 

direct. directing. 

They may, can or must direct. They may, can or must be directing. 

Imperfect Tense. 
But serving also for Present Tense of the conditional form. 
Singular. 
I might, could, should or would direct. I might, £c, be directing. 
Thou mightest, couldst, shouldst or Thou mightest, $-c, be di- 

wouldst direct. recting. 

He, 4"C, might, could, should or would He, #c, might, $-c, be di- 
direct. recting. 

Plural. 
We might, £c, direct, We might, £c, be directing. 

Ye or you might, ^c , direct. Ye or you might, £c, be 

directing. 
They might, #c, direct. They might, # c -j be di- 

recting. 



Perfect Tense. 
Called by some, the Present Perfect. 



Singular. 
I may have directed. 
Thou mayest have directed. 
He, £c, may have directed. 

Plural. 
We may have directed. 
Ye or you may have directed. 
They may have directed. 



I may have been directing. 
Thou mayest have been directing. 
He, £c, may have been directing. 



We may have been directing. 

Ye or you may have been directing. 

They may have been directing. 



32 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Pluperfect Tense. 

Sing. Indefinite. Definite. 

I might, could, should or would I might, £c, have been directing. 

have directed. 

Thou mightest, couldst, £c, Thou mightest, £c, have been 

have directed. directing. 
He, fyc, mightest, couldst, #c, He might, #c, have been direct- 
have directed. ing. 

Plural. 

We might, could, £c, have di- "We might, $c., have been di- 
rected recting. 

Ye or you might, could, 4" c - 5 Ye or you might, #c, have been 
have directed. directing. 

They might, £c., have directed. They might, #c, have been di- 
recting. 

The future tense of this mode may be expressed by 
adding some word, denoting futurity to the forms in the 
present tense, as I may direct to-morrow, next week, &c. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE, (indicative branch). 

Present Tense. 
Singular. 

If I be directing, or if I am directing. 



If I direct. 

If thou direct or directest. 

If he, 4*c., direct or directs. 

Plural. 
If we direct, 
If ye or you direct. 
If they direct. 



If thou be or art directing. 
If he be or is directing. 



If we be or are directing. 

If ye or you be or are directing. 

If they be or are directing. 



Imperfect Tense. 
Also, the hypothetical form of the Present, (except if I was, #c.) 
Singular. 



If I directed. 

If thou directed or dircctedst. 

If he, £c t directed. 

Plural. 

If we directed. 

If ye or you directed. 

If they directed. 



If I was directing. 
If thou wast directing. 
If he, £c, was directing. 



If we were directing. 

If ye or you were directing. 

If they were directing. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Extended examples of the hypo- 
thetical form, present tense. 

If he directed them they would 
succeed. If we knew that he 
were directing them, we should 
be certain of their arrival. 



Hypothetical form of the sing. 

present tense. 
If I were directing. 
If thou wert directing. 
If he, #c, were directing. 



Pluperfect Tense. 

Sing. Indefinite. Definite. 

If I had directed If I had been directing. 

If thou hadst directed. If thou hadst been directing. 

If he, £c, had directed. If he, #c, had been directing. 

Plural. 

If we had directed. 

If ye or you had directed. 

If they had directed. 



If we had been directing. 

If ye or you had been directing. 

If they had been directing. 



Future Tense. 



Singular. 

If I shall or will direct. 
If thou shalt or wilt direct. 
If he, <§-c, shall or will direct. 

Plural. 

If we shall or will direct. 
If ye or you shall or will di- 
rect. 
If they shall or will direct. 



If I shall or will be directing. 
If thou shalt or wilt be directing. 
If he, £c, shall or will be directing. 



If we shall or will be directing. 
If ye or you shall or will be direct- 
ing. 
If they shall or will be directing. 



Second Future Tense. 

[Compound Future^ or Future Perfect.) 

Singular. 

If I shall or will have directed. If I shall or will have been directing. 

If thou shalt or wilt have di- If thou shalt or wilt have been 

rected. directing. 

If he, #c, shall or will have If he, #c, shall or will have been 

directed. directing. 

Plural. 

If we shall or will have di- If we shall or will have been di- 
rected, recting. 

If ye or you shall or will have If ye or you shall have been di- 

directed. recting. 

If they shall or will have di- If they shall or will have been di- 
rected, recting. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

' SUBJUNCTIVE MODE, continued, (potential branch). . 

Present Tense. 
Singular. 
If I may, can or must direct. If I may, ^-c, be directing. 

If thou mayest, canst or must direct. If thou mayest, <$-c.,be directing. 
If he, 3-c, may, can or must direct. If he, #c, may, £c, be di- 
recting. 
Plural. 
If we may, can or must direct. If we may, fyc, be directing. 

If ye or you may, can or must di- If ye or you may, #c, be di- 
rect, recting. 
If they may, can or must direct. If they may, £c, be directing. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Also, the hypothetical form of the Present. 
Singular. 

If I might, could, would, or should If I might, #c, be directing, 
direct. 

If thou mightest, couldst, #c, direct. If thou mightest, £c, be di- 
recting. 

If he, £c, might, £c, direct. If he, #c, might, £c, be 

directing. 
Plural. 

If we might, #c, direct. Jf we might, ^c, be directing. 

If ye or you might, £c, direct. If ye or you might, £c, be 

directing. 

If they might, £c, direct. If they might, £c, be di- 

recting. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Sing. Indefinite. Definite. 

If I might, <^c, have directed. If I might, &c, have been directing. 

If thou lightest, couldst, £c, If thou mightest, #c, have been 

have directed. directing. 

If he, £c, might, £c, have If he, £c, might, £c, have been 

directed. directing. 

Plural. 

If we might, #c, have directed. If we might, £c, have beendirecting. 

If ye or you might, £c, have If ye or you might, £c, have been 

directed. directing. 

If they might, £c, have di- If they might, £c, have been di- 
rected, recting. 

The hypothetical form of this To form a passive verb, we may 

tense does not vary from the plu- substitute the past participle for 

perfect. For a future tense, see the present, 
the potential, 



ETYMOLOGY. 



35 



Some writers make no variations in the persons of the 
verb in the subjunctive, except in the imperfect tense of 
the verb to be. 



A few words are called third personal verbs, and 
sometimes, impersonal verbs, from their invariable use in 
the third person, as it rains, it snows, &c. And some 
few are called defective, not being used in all the modes 
and tenses. 

Every possible combination of principal verbs and 
participles with a pronoun, and with the helping verbs, 
may be concisely exhibited in the following examples : 



The principal verb or participle, f I choose, chose, 
combined with a pronoun, and j do choose, did choose. 



with do, and with do and be. 



do thou choose. 



bej 
o. 



with 



with Be 



have and 
have and be. 



I choosing, be chosen 
f Be thou choosing or chosen 
j I am choosing or chosen. 
\ I was choosing or chosen. 
To choose. 

To be choosing or chosen. { 

\ To have chosen, to have been f 
with! choosing or chosen. 

1 I have chosen or I have been ) 
[ choosing or chosen. ! 

jl had chosen or I had been f 
(choosing or chosen. J 



Indie and 
subj. modes. 

Imperative. 

Indie, and 
subj. 

Infinitve. 



Indie, and 
subj. 



Participles, having chosen or having 

been choosing or chosen. 
The distinction, without any practical 

difference, of compound perfect, as 

having chosen, does not affect the 

form of the participle. 



'k. W 

T} I- 

fl > 

I .- 

o -r • 






f shall, 
should, 
will, 
would, 

S ma y 5 

might, 
can, 
could, 
must. 



cr 2. 



cr o 
n> tr 

2.8 



'=r 



o » sfn 



o <*? 



Adverbs, (j) Many adverbs enumerated in the fore- 
going catalogue, are in reality substitutes for other words 
or phrases, frequently of a noun and the governing pre- 
position, as — there signifies in that place, here signifies 
in this place, hither to this place, hence from this place, 
from this fact or from these premises, &c. So, may sig- 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

nify in this manner or likewise, in like manner, &c. ; and 
it is often substituted for many preceding words, and then 
it is an adverbial substitute. Such phrases being adjuncts 
to the main sentence of which the verb is the most essen- 
tial word, the substitutes for those adjuncts are therefore 
called adverbs. Adverbs are classified into those of time, 
as now, then, &c, of place, as thither, thither, Sec; of 
number, as once, twice, &c. ; of manner and quality, as 
wisely, justly, swiftly, &c. ; of doubt, as perhaps, possibly, 
Sec. ; of negation, as nay, not, &c. Some adverbs are 
occasionally used as adjectives, as more and most, the 
more I see it the better I like it ; by the more times I see 
it, in the better manner or degree. &c. Adjectives like 
adverbs sometimes modify verbs, as the bell sounds 
clear. In such instances the adjectives are used ad- 
verbially. 

(k) Prepositions seem originally to have denoted rela- 
tions of place, as above, about, beneath, Sec. Many have 
a borrowed signification, derived from the idea of place 
or position, as the argument is below a serious refutation. 

Inseparable prepositions are certain syllables frequently 
used in the composition of words, thus be is used for 
about, as to besprinkle, to sprinkle about. For, signifies 
negation, as to forbid, to forsake, &c. Fore signifies 
before, as to foretel, to foresee, &c. Un denotes negation 
or contrariety, as unequal, unpleasant. 

(I) Of the many sorts of conjunctions the principal are, 
the copulative and disjunctive, as before mentioned. 

The most usual copulative conjunctions are these — 
and, if, that, since, for, because, therefore. 

The most common disjunctive are — but, or, nor, than, 
though, unless, either, neither. 

Corresponding or preceding conjunctions are — as, nor, 
or, either, neither ; so called because they precede or 
foretel the use of other conjunctions, as either he or I 
must write ; here either precedes or. Neither virtue nor 
riches exempts any man from death ; here neither corres- 
ponds with nor, or precedes it — or and nor are sometimes 
used for either and neither, as corresponding con- 
junctions. 



ETYMOLOGY. 37 

Op Derivation. 

It has been observed that most of our words, especially 
our monosyllables, are of ancient Saxon origin, while 
many others are derived from the Latin and Greek. 
Hence, we have words nearly synonymous, as truth from 
the Saxon, and veracity from the Latin Veritas ; friendship 
from the Saxon, and amity from the Latin amicus ; talk 
from the Saxon, and conversation from the Latin conver- 
satio. The use of two or more words of exactly the 
same import in the same connection should be avoided, as 
it is sufficient to say, He is a man of truth ; without saying 
he is a man of truth and veracity. 

Prefixes are letters or syllables beginning a derivative 
word, as resound, overtake ; suffixes are letters or sylla- 
bles ending a derivative word, as truly, excellence, 
governance, Sec. Many English primitives are compounds 
of words belonging to other languages, as Cornelius from 
cornu, a horn, and elios, the sun (the horn of the sun) ; 
magnify from magnus, great, and fio, to make. But such 
derivations are commonly understood from dictionaries, 
or from classical study. Learners will do well to consult 
Webster's quarto, or other dictionaries, in that part of 
etymology which explains the derivation of words. 
Tooke's "Diversions of Purley,"* and other extensive 
philological treatises, are useful for students considerably 
advanced. Our numerous words of Saxon origin are 
inherited from the Saxon invaders of England, located 
there in the fifth century. 

Some Directions to assist beginners in Grammar to distin- 
guish the classes of words or parts of speech. 

A noun may be generally known by its making sense 
after the word my, as my paper, my book ; or after any 
appropriate adjective, as white paper, an excellent book. 

An adjective may in general be known by its making 
sense after the word things, as good things, bad things ; 
or by joining it to any other appropriate noun, as good 
books, good principles. 

# Diversions, at that place. 
4 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR; 

A verb may be known by its fit conjugation in the 
modes and tenses, or in any of them, as I learn, thou 
learnest, he learns, Sec. And if the verb shall be found 
in the infinitive, present time, as to learn, it will always 
form a present participle by the addition of ing, as 
learning, choosing. Past participles will make sense 
after the word had, as had learned, had chosen. 

A preposition admits after it a personal pronoun in the 
objective case, in preference to the nominative, as to him, 
from them, &c, not to he, from they, Sec. 

Exercises in distinguishing the Parts of Speech. 

It may be expedient to commence with but two parts 
of speech, as the noun and verb, that the difference be- 
tween them may be plainly perceived by the use of a 
simple test, in preference at first, to any definitions 
which can be subsequently used. Many an adult, not 
of the most obtuse intellects, will not at first under- 
stand us when we define a noun as being a name ; for he 
supposes every word to be a name, and we may let him 
suppose so, only stating that a noun is the name of a sub- 
stance, as money, gold, iron, or of an ideal object, as 
industry, resolution, Sec. Nouns in general being a sort 
of words which will make sense after the word my, as 
my money, my gold, my resolution. 

That a verb is the name of a word which signifies 
acting or doing, as to take, to choose ; being such words 
as make sense after the pronoun I, thou, and he, as I 
choose, thou choosest, he chooses, and that if they may 
be used with I in the present time, they will form another 
proper word by adding the syllable ing, as taking, choos- 
ing, &c, the new word thus formed, being a present 
participle. The learner will be directed to test the verb 
with my, as my take, and readily perceiving the absurdity 
of such an applicat ion, will apply the proper test. Learners 
will join adjectives to appropriate nouns, and will vary 
them in the degrees of comparison ; will come to conju- 
gate the verbs in different modes and tenses, and to refer 
to the definitions of the parts of speech, and these several 



ETYMOLOGY. &V 

topics as exhibited in the foregoing synopsis of etymology, 
which may be applied as occasion may require in ety- 
mological and syntactical parsing. The discretion of 
teachers will, of course, adapt the learners' exercises to 
their wants and progressive improvement. 

Self-instructors, it is supposed, will derive some benefit 
from the exercise of selecting words at leisure, and placing 
them under the following columns, according to the parts 
of speech to which the words belong ; transcribing the 
columns into a blank book or manuscript, provided for 
parsing and other exercises. 



(my) 



Nouns. 


Verbs. 


Adjectives. 


Appropriate 
Nouns. 


money 


learn (ing) 


good 


(money) 


silver 


rejoice 


bright 


(silver) 


gold 


renew 


yellow 


(gold) 


iron 


choose 


hard 


(iron) 


property 


take 


valuable 


(property) 


house 


resolve 


excellent 


(house) 


temple 


write 


large 


(temple) 


industry 


restore 


constant 


(industry) 


resolution 


relate 


firm 


(resolution) 


farm 


farm 


rich T 


(farm) 


plow 


plow 


new 


(plow) 


pen 


pen 


elegant 


(pen) 



By placing I before verbs, and yesterday after them, 
we shall be guided to their preterites, as I chose yester- 
day ; and by placing I had before them, we shall come to 
their past participles, as I had chosen. 

Write the plural number of man, boy, brother, child, 
tooth, chapter, penny, leaf, book, pen, assembly, valley, 
story, chimney, chair, church, hero, radius. 

Question. Which of these have the plural number? 
Gold, silver, iron, box, industry, shelf, table, temperance, 
river, pride, plow, farm, house, property, resolution. 

Vary the following adjectives in the degrees of com- 
parison, as positive wise, comparative wiser, superlative 
wisest; small, high, low, hard, soft, sweet, sour, good, 
bad. Add to each of them some appropriate nouns, as a 
great river, a small book, a high mountain. Compare 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

these by the adverbs more and most — industrious, excel- 
lent, valuable, respectable, ancient, eloquent, as positive 
valuable, comparative more valuable, superlative most 
valuable. Enumerate more adjectives at pleasure. 

Avoid double comparatives, as more wiser, or most 
wisest, except when such a phrase can not be construed 
into an improper nor extravagant hyperbole. 

Conjugate the verb learn in the indicative mode, pre- 
sent tense, indefinite form — definite form — pluperfect 
tense, indefinite. In like manner conjugate the verbs 
write, choose, take, forsake. Conjugate the verbs 
come, go, see, rejoice, in all the modes and tenses. In 
like manner conjugate some other verbs selected at 
pleasure. 

Specimen of Etymological Parsing. 

Good boys are duly rewarded. 

Good — is an adjective, in the positive degree, [positive good, com- 
parative better, superlative best,] and belongs to the 
noun, boys. 

Boys — a common noun, [common nouns make sense, fyc; define a 
common noun, j plural number, [sing, boy], masculine 
gender, in the nominative case to the verb are [boys 
are]. 

Art — is an irregular intransitive verb, indicative mode, present 
tense, third person, singular number, [I am, thou art, 
he is, We are, you are, they are; boys are]. 

Duly — is an adverb of manner. 

Rewarded — is a past participle from the verb reward, having the 
nature of an adjective in the positive degree, [positive 
rewarded, comparative better rewarded, superlative best 
rewarded]. 

To form a passive verb, if desired, we may substitute 
the following: are rewarded, form a regular passive verb, 
indicative mode, present tense, third person, plural 
number. 

The words in brackets, in the foregoing exercise in 
parsing, may be used, modified or omitted at pleasure. 



SYNTAX* 41 

SYNTAX. • 

The formation of correct and elegant sentences de* 
pends on agreement, government and arrangement. 

Agreement is the conformity which one word bears to 
another in person, number, gender, case, mode or tense. 

Government is the power or influence which some 
words have over others, in directing the cases, modes 01 
tenses. 

Arrangement is the order in which the words of a 
sentence are placed. 

A simple sentence has one nominative case, and one 
verb expressed or understood, as the boys write. If there 
are more nominatives and verbs connected, we have a 
compound sentence, as the boys and girls read and write. 

Rule I. — A verb must agree with its nominative in 
person and number, as I learn, thou learnest, he learns, 
you were learning. 

Note. — 1. Sometimes the infinitive mode or a sentence or phrase is 
used as the nominative case to a verb or participle, the antecedent of 
a pronoun and a noun to which an adjective refers, the verb and pro- 
noun in such an instance being of the third person singular, and the 
pronoun being of the neuter gender, as to know one's self is a step 
towards wisdom, which makes self-examination necessary, viewing 
a fine prospect is agreeable. Sometimes two or more such sentences 
are connected by copulative conjunctions, and therefore require plural 
verbs, nouns and pronouns, (see Rule II). 

2. When the verb be, or any of its variations, has two nominatives 
of different numbers, one before and the other after it, the verb may 
agree with either, but most usually agrees with that nominative 
which is nearest to the verb, as the wages of sin is death. Some say 
the first nominative should always be preferred-, but that regard 
should be paid to that which is most naturally the subject of the verb. 

Rule II. — Two or more nouns, or pronouns, of the 
singular number, connected by one or more copulative 
conjunctions, expressed or understood, require plural 
verbs, nouns and pronouns to agree with such connected 
nouns or pronouns, as Homer, Virgil and Horace were 
admired by the ancients, and by the moderns they are 
esteemed most excellent poets. 

Note. — 1. When several antecedents of different persons are thus 
connected, the subsequent pronouns and verbs agree with the first 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

person in preference to the second and third, and with the second in 
preference to the third, as he and I are rivals, but we are friends. 

2. Several nouns in the singular, connected by a disjunctive con- 
junction, have verbs in the singular, as neither learning, nor useful- 
ness, nor virtue, exempts any man from death. 

3. Sometimes antecedents in the singular, with a disjunctive con- 
junction between them, have plural pronouns in works of approved 
writers. 

4. When several singular pronouns are disjunctively connected, the 
verb commonly agrees with the nearest pronoun, as I or he is to 
blame; He or I am to blame. 

5. If the verb can be supposed sometimes to have a separate agree- 
ment with each of ihe singular nouns connected by and, such verb 
may be of ihe singular number, as salt, and sand, and a mass of iron, 
is easier to bear than a man without understanding. 

6 Singular nouns connected by the preposition with, to other 
nouns in the objective case, have been allowed, though not often, to 
have plural verbs; as Cadmus, with his wife, (according to ancient 
fable) were changed to dragons. 1 * Antigone, with her elder sister, 
from their infancy were placed under their grandmother's care. — 
[ Watts on the Improvement of Mind.] 

Rule III. — Singular nouns of multitude may have 
singular or plural verbs, nouns and pronouns, as the 
flock is or are scattered; it is or they are without a shep- 
herd, but regard should be had to the sense of the noun 
as to its conveying the idea of unity or plurality. 

Rule IV. — Personal pronouns used relatively, and the 
adjective pronouns derived from them, must agree with 
their antecedents in person, number and gender, as this 
boy studies with diligence ; he excels in learning. Rela- 
tive pronouns agree with their antecedents in person and 
number, as the boy who studies. 

Note. — I. The neuter pronoun it, by an English idiom, sometimes 
refers to a noun or pronoun of the masculine or feminine gender, in 
explanatory sentences, as it was he, it was Mary. 

2. When the relative is preceded by two antecedents of different 
persons, having an intransitive or neuter verb between them, the 
relative pronoun or one used relatively, may agree in person with 
either of those antecedents; but the latter nominative is usually pre- 
ferred, as I am the man that take care, or takes care, of your interest. 

3. The relative who, refers to persons, as the lady who reads; but 
the relative which, refers to irrational animalsand to places and things, 

* Cadmus rum uxorc in dracones conversi sunt." — Vide Latin Grammar, by 
C. Alexander, A.M. 



SYNTAX. 43 

as the book which we read. The relative that, is often used for who 
and for which. 

4 Adjective pronouns are sometimes used as antecedents, as God 
abhors thy hypocrisy, who hearest his word but despisest his precepts. 

Rule V. — Every adjective, every adjective pronoun and 
every participle in the nature of an adjective, belongs to 
some noun or pronoun expressed or understood, or to some 
words used in the place of a noun, as a good man, a wise 
philosopher, to study is useful. The pronominal adjectives 
this, that, these, those, and the numerical adjectives one, 
two, &c, must agree with their nouns in number, as this 
book, these or those books; one book, two books. 

Note. — 1. Some adjectives qualify others derived from substantives, 
as an English Commercial Dictionary, [Dictionary of English Com- 
merce], 

2. When several adjectives preceded by the article the, are connected 
by one or more conjunctions, each adjective referring to a distinct and 
separate thing, which is comprehended by the noun to which those 
adjectives refer, such noun should be of the plural number, as the 
upper and lower hemispheres; the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans 

Rule VI. — Conjunctions connect the same cases of 
nouns and pronouns, and the same modes and tenses of 
verbs, as he and she can read and write. 

Note. — 1. Different tenses of the same verb are sometimes elegantly 
connected, as " Posterity adn ires, and will long admire, the awful 
remains of the amphitheatre of Titus. 11 And sometimes it is found 
convenient to connect different modes and tenses of different verbs, 
but such deviations from the rule should not frequently occur. 

2. When several short sentences come together, with or without a 
conjunction between them, they will better comport with elegance 
if the verb in each sentence agree in mode and time, as I came, 1 saw, 
I conquered.* Hence all unnecessary change of construction should 
be avoided. 

Rule VII. — Nouns and pronouns in the possessive 
case are governed by the nouns which they possess, 
called latter nouns, as my father's house. 

Note. — 1. The possessive case, sometimes called the genitive, is 
often expressed by a noun in the objective aft^r the preposition of, as 
the property of John, or John's property; but this objective will not 
always express the possessive, as instead of the love of gold, we 
cannot say gold's love, though both of these expressions, the property 

* Veni, vidi, vici. 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of John, and the love of gold, would be comprehended in the Latin 
genitive. 

2. Two or more nouns coming together, or near each other, signifying 
the same person or thing, agree in the same case by apposition, as Paul, 
the apostle. A noun is sometimes in apposition with a pronoun. 

Rule VIII. — Transitive verbs govern the objective 
case, as I saw them; he teaches us; good scholars love 
their books. 

Note. — 1. The verb to be has the nominative case after it as well 
as before it, as I am he, except in the infinitive mode it is fol- 
lowed by the objective case, when the objective next precedes it, as 
I took it to be him This note is said to apply to other intransitive 
verbs, as intemperate men become nuisances — come to be nuisances. 

2. It is said that transitive verbs may sometimes govern two 
objective cases, one of the person and one of the thing, without 
the intervention of any conjunction or connecting word, expressed or 
understood, as he taught them philosophy, and that sometimes a 
transitive or active verb governs two objective or accusative cases, 
both of which are expressive of things only, as the literati who make 
etymology the invariable rule of pronunciation. Some grammarians 
would suggest that in the first of the foregoing examples, the pronoun 
them is governed by in, to, or unto, understood and that in the last 
example, the noun rule is preceded by the verb to be, understood. 
Passive verbs of asking, teaching and some others, are employed to 
govern the objective. 

Rule IX. — One verb governs another that follows it 
or depends upon it in the infinitive mode, as I saw him 
write; learn to do well. Nouns, adjectives and parti- 
ciples also frequently govern the infinitive mode after 
them, as they have a desire to learn; he is worthy to be 
trusted ; endeavoring to persuade. 

Note. — 1. The infinitive mode is sometimes made absolute, not 
depending on the rest of the sentence when it supplies the place of 
the conjunction that, with the potential branch of the subjunctive, as 
to confess the truth I was not there, or that I may confess, #c. 

2. The preceding or governing verb in the past time of the poten- 
tial form by have, requires the same time and formation of the 
infinitive which follows, as it might have given me much pleasure 
to have conversed with him. This formation of the infinitive always 
denotes something antecedent to the time of the governing verb, the 
present form to write, to be writing, ^-c; always denoting time, 
contemporary with or subsequent to the time of such governing verb. 

3. When the infinitive follows the transitive verbs see, hear, feel, 
let, bid, make, the preposition to is commonly omitted. Hence the 
governmental influence of those verbs upon the infinitive is readily 
perceived. 



SYNTAX, 45 

Rule X. — Participles* have the same government as 
the verbs have, from which they are derived, and are often 
governed themselves by a preceding verb or preposition, 
as they could not avoid seeing me ; they found him trans- 
gressing the law. 

Rule XI.— Prepositions govern the objective case, as 
I received a letter from him, and another from her. 

Note, The preposition to is used before nouns of place, when they 
follow verbs of motion or their participles, as I went to London; I 
was going to Paris-, but the preposition at or in is used before such 
nouns when they follow the verb to be, and its participles, as I shall 
be at Rome or in Rome; I have been at London or in London. Other 
general directions for the use of prepositions might be given, but 
with many exceptions. Their uses are best acquired from observation 
of good speakers and writers. 

Rule XII. — The objective case of the first and third 
persons singular, is sometimes governed by the interjec- 
tions ah ! and alas ! as " Ah, me ! while up the long, long 
vale of time," Sec. Ah, him! the first martyr, &c. "Ah, 
happy hills! Ah, pleasing shade! Ah, fields beloved in 
vain ! " 

The interjection often governs or precedes the second 
person in the nominative case independent, as " man, 
thy kingdom is departing from thee." 

RULES OF ARRANGEMENT. 

Rule I. — The nominative case comes before the verb, 
as John reads ; except that it is sometimes placed after 
an intransitive verb, as only by pride cometh contention. 
When a question is asked or a command given, the verb 
or auxiliary precedes the nominative, as Will you write? 
Was he at school ? Choose thou or do thou choose ; and 
in the subjunctive mode it is preceded in the same man- 
ner when the conjunction is omitted, as were I to choose 
I should not hesitate, i. e. if I were to choose, &c. 

* Present Participles, in the nature of verbs, are often joined with 
the nominative case absolute, which is commonly formed by the 
omission of the particles after when, while, since, because, £c., as 
they coming in he went away, or while after or because they came 
in, £c, 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rule II. — Adjectives are commonly placed immediately 
before the nouns to which they refer, as a clear head and 
a good heart are more to be desired than great riches, 
ennobled birth and a numerous retinue; but when an 
adjective is emphatical or is immediately preceded by an 
intransitive verb, it often comes after the noun, as the 
genuine cause of every deed divine. 

" Thine ear is patient of a serious song.'''' 

The possessive case stands before the noun which is 
possessed, as Mary's book. 

Note — The adjective is sometimes placed before an intransitive 
verb, as 

" Fair is the rising sun." 

'• Siveet is the hrealh or morn. 1 ' 

Rule III. — Articles are placed before the noun and 
adjective, as a book, the scholar, a good artist. 

Note. — Articles are placed after the words all, such, and many, as 
all the men: such an enterprise-, many a bargain 5 and after an adjec- 
tive, subjoined to the adverbs so or as, and how, as — so wise a states- 
man; as hue a landscape-, how pleasant a prospect. 

Rule IV. — The objective case usually comes after the 
governing verb, as a glad voice cheers the lonely desert, 
but sometimes by an inversion it precedes the verb, espe- 
cially in verse, as 

"A glad voice the lonely desert cheers." 

Rule V. — An adverb must have an appropriate place 
in the sentence, and sufficiently near the word which it 
affects, to make such word obvious and for the most 
part before adjectives, and between the auxiliary and 
principal verb, as he has written a very excellent book; 
he has elegantly written, &c. 

Rule VI. — Prepositions are placed before the words 
which they govern, as I received a letter from him, and 
another from her. 

Note. — Prepositions of two syllables accented on the last, aie some- 
times in poetry, placed after the words which they govern, as — 

" A man's courage wou'd now lie well tried, 
Who should wander the ruins about." 

Arrangement is said to be of two kinds, natural and arti- 






SYNTAX. 47 

ficial. The former is when ttue words of a sentence follow 
each other as directed in the foregoing rules, in the 
usual order of common discourse in the same manner as 
the conceptions of the mind. Artificial arrangement 
or order, called also transposition, or inversion, is when 
the words are placed out of their natural order, in the 
manner described in the foregoing notes and exceptions, 
without obscuring the sense. They are commonly so 
placed for the sake of harmony, elegance or perspicuity. 
In the natural order, when an adjunct of the sentence 
occurs, consisting of an objective case and its governing 
preposition, such adjunct follows the verb, as we live, 
move and have our being in him. Artificial order, in 
him we live, &c. Further examples : 

Natural order or arrangement. 

Many a voice and many a harp arose in tuneful sounds, 
They sang of Fingal's noble deeds — of Fingal's noble race. 

Artificial order or arrangement. 

Many a voice and many a harp in tuneful sounds arose, 
Of Fingal's noble deeds they sang, of Fingal's noble race. 

McPherson's Ossian. 

A compound sentence in which the words stand in 
their natural order. 

The armies of Alexander contained but thirty thousand men, and 
he overcame Darius in one battle, who had ten hundred thousand, 
when he was so heavy with sleep that his eves were scarce open, as 
the stories report. 

The same words placed in the artificial or inverted 
order, by which an ambiguity is removed, by showing 
that Alexander, not Darius, was heavy with sleep. 

The armies of Alexander contained but thirty thousand men, and 
in one battle, as the stories report, when he was so heavy with sleep 
that his eyes were scarce open, he overcame Darius, who had ten 
hundred thousand. 

When the natural order of words is smooth and grace- 
ful it is generally preferred, except when a different 
arrangement is more graceful or better understood. 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The following examples show that the words of a sen- 
tence may be variously arranged. 

The people are knowing and conversable, where from want of 
hands, several occupations must be carried on by the same person. 

In a country where several occupations must be carried on by the 
same person, from want of hands, the people are knowing and con- 
versable. — Home's Sketches. 

Were all books reduced to their quintessence many a bulky author 
would make his appearance in a penny paper. 

Many a bulky author would make his appearance in a penny paper, 
were all books reduced to their quintessence. — Addison. 

An example of the natural order of words in which 
the ellipsis * is supplied. 

"Will any man give his voice for banishing a man from this city, 
whom every city on earth would be proud to receive within its walls? 
Happy the country that shall receive him! Ungrateful this, if it 
shall banish him! Wretched, if it should lose him! — Cicero's Ora- 
tion for Milo. 

The country that shall receive him will be happy. This country 
will be ungrateful if it shall banish him. It would be wretched if it 
should lose him. 

Specimens of Etymological and Syntactical Parsing, 

Industry is fortune's right hand, and frugality her left. 

Industry — is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, in the nominative case to the verb is. 

Is — an irregular intransitive verb in the indicative mode, present 
tense, third person, singular number, agreeing in person 
and number with its nominative industry, according to 
syntactical Rule I. 

Fortune's — is a common noun used in this sentence as a proper noun, 
by the figure of rhetoric called Prosopopoeia or Per- 
sonification,! in the third person, singular number, 
feminine gender, (by the figure) and possessive case, 
governed by its latter noun hand, according to Rule VIII., 

* Ellipsis is the elegant omission of one or more words in a sentence, without 
destroying the grammatical construction and is designed to be used wiihout o: - 
ecuring the sense. 

t Personification represents an inanimate object, as a living intelligent person ; 
as famine is lints represented by Cowper, 

" The meagre fiend 

Blows mildew from between his shriveled lips 
And tuinls the golden ear." 



SYNTAX. 49 

and stands before the noun hand, according to Rule II. 
of Arrangement. 

Right — is an adjective in the positive degree or state, (this adjective 
not requiring any other) belonging to the noun hand, 
understood, according to rule 5th of agreement. 

Hand — is a common noun, third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, in the nominative case after the verb is, accord- 
ing to Note 1, on Rule VIII. 

And — is a copulative conjunction, connecting two sentences, For- 
tune is, §-c, and frugality is, <§-c. 

Frugality — is a common noun, third person, singular number, neuter 
gender in the nominative case to the verb is, understood. 

Her — is an adjective pronoun of the third person, singular number, 
feminine gender, agreeing in person, number and gender 
with its antecedent, fortune, according to Rule IV. ., 
and belonging to the noun hand, understood according 
to Rule V. If it be preferred to account it a personal 
pronoun, it will be said to be in the possessive case, 
possessing the noun hand, according to Rule VII., and 
agreeing <$-c. as before. [Rules of Arrangement may 
be cited or omitted at discretion.] 

Left — is an adjective in the positive degree (having no other) be- 
longing to the noun hand, understood — Rule V. 

We are delighted in viewing a pleasant prospect. 

Viewing — is a present participle in the nature of a common noun, 
singular number, neuter gender, and objective case, 
governed by the preposition in, according to Rule X. 
This participle is at the same time in the nature of a tran- 
sitive verb, present tense, [omit mode, person and number] 
governing the noun prospect. 

A — is the indefinite article used before a consonant, and referring like 
an adjective to the noun prospect. [Rule of Arrangement 
omitted.] 

Pleasant — is an adjective in the positive degree, of comparison 
(pleasant, pleasanter, pleasantest, or pleasant, more plea- 
sant, most pleasant,) and belongs to the noun prospect — 
Rule V. [Rule of Arrangement omitted.] 

Prospect — is a common noun, singular number, neuter gender, and 
objective case, governed by the participle viewing. RuleX. 

Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. 
Shame — is a common noun, singular number, neuter gender, nom- 
inative case absolute to the participle being. 
Being — is a present participle, in the nature of an intransitive verb, 
present tense — (not varied to express mode, tense, person, 
nor number) and is joined with the nominative case absolute. 
Lost — is a past participle in the nature of an adjective positive de- 
gree belonging to the noun, shame, Rule V.; [being lost, are 
5 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

also participles in the nature of a passive verb, present tense, 
joined with the nominative case absolute.] 

"Who had escaped the tomb could wit prevail, 
Or wisdom ? Wit and wisdom answer Bayle ; 
Star of a lowering sky, that shunn'd the light, 
Still more refulgent from surrounding night,'' &c. 

Had escaped — (would have escaped) an intransitive verb, indicative 
mode, pluperfect tense, third person, singular num- 
ber, agreeing with its nominative who. Rule I. 

Tomb — a common noun, singular number, neuter gender, objective 
case governed by the preposition to understood. 
Rule XL, [escaped from going or descending to.] 

Could prevail — An intransitive verb, subjunctive mode, (potential 
branch of the subjunctive) present tense, hypo- 
thetical form, third person, singular number, agreeing 
in person and number with its nominatives wit and 
wisdom separately, according to Note 2, on Rule II. 

Bayle — is a proper noun, singular number, masculine gender, nom- 
inative case to the verb, ivould have escaped under- 
stood. 

Star — is a common noun, third person, singular number, neuter gen- 
der, nominative case independent. [This is better 
than to consider it in apposition with Bayle. ]# 

That — is a relative pronoun, (used for which) third person, singular 
number, neuter gender, nominative case to the verb 
shunnM, and agrees with its antecedent star — Rule IV. 
Star, not sky, was probably intended by the writer 
as the antecedent. 

Refulgent — an adjective of the comparative degree, belonyins: to the 
noun star — Rule V. [This is probably better than 
to suppose this adjective to belong to the noun light.] 

Surrounding — is a present participle in the nature of an adjective 
in the positive degree, belonging to the noun night — 
Rule V. 

The person of the noun, except the second, may in 
general be omitted in parsing; the occurrence of the 
third person being so frequent as to become almost a 
matter of course. Thorough parsing is recommended, 
following the lines annexed to the several parts of speech 
in the Synopsis of Etymology. As a learner advances, 

* A noun or pronoun, whether of the second or third person, having 
no verb/ls said to be in the nominative case independent, as He that 
hath ears to hear, let him hear. 

" T-retl nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep ; 
He, lil.o the world his ready visits pay*," &c. 



SYNTAX. 51 

some particular words or parts of a sentence may be 
selected for parsing and for the exercise of criticism. It 
is well to begin with easy sentences under the rules, and 
afterwards to proceed with miscellaneous examples. In 
the last place various errors in sentences selected for the 
.jxercise of criticism should be corrected, that exercise 
jeing essential to the completion of grammatical skill. 

The following examples, among many others, may be 
used for such exercise. 

" Who art thou? Speak! that on designs unknown, 
While others sleep, thus range the camp alone." 

u thou my voice inspire, 

Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire." 

" I am the man that takes care of your interest, at the expense 
of my own " 

" O thou Supreme high thronM all height above, 
Who n idst surrounding frosts, and vapors chill, 
Preside on bleak Dodona's vocal hill." 

A stone is heavy and the sand weighty, but a fool's wrath is 
heavier than them both. 1 commend unto you Phcrbe, our sister, 
which is a servant of the church. ''One evening, not long before 
their desolation, there was seen in the air chariots and amies hover- 
ing over the city." What concord can exist between those who 
comrrit crimes and they who abhor them? There are many faults in 
spelling which neither analogy nor pronunciation justify. In unity 
consists the security and welfare of every society. You and I have 
the same right to judge for ourselves as them. 

Some who the depths of eloquence have found, 
In that unnavigable stream were drowned. 

Him portion'd maids, apprenticed orphans blest, 
The young who labor and the old who rest. 

U A strict observance after times and fashions." He was accused 
for betraying the trust reposed in him. He arrived to New- York 
soon after he left London. The farm which he purchased lays in 
Pittstown. [Lay is ever a transitive verb: lay, past time of lie, to 
recline, is intransitive.] He done it, they seen him. [Avoid such 
attacks upon the language.] 

" The nations not so blest as thee, 
Shall in their turns to tyrants fall, 
While thou shalt flourish, great and free, 
The dread and envy of them ail." 

Thomson" 1 s Rule Britannia, 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

« 

The foregoing sentences, with many others, may serve 
for exercises in parsing, by which their defects may be 
discovered and corrected, with a readiness proportioned 
to the learner's progress in grammar. Particular words, 
without including every word in a sentence, will be often 
selected for parsing; which will beccme a pleasure, 
rather than an irksome task to the ambitious and critical 
scholar. Any further analysis of a sentence beyond the 
common parsing, may be included in it, or may be per- 
formed separately ; the learner being previously informed 
that the nominative case is sometimes called the gram- 
matical subject, of which subject something is affirmed 
by the verb which agrees with it, which verb is called 
the grammatical predicate, and when such grammatical 
subject [the nominative] or when such grammatical 
predicate [the verb] is connected with other words 
expressing the entire idea of such nominative or verb 
in that instance the nominative, combined with those 
other words, is called the logical subject; and the 
verb, including its modifying and connecting words, is 
called the logical predicate, as " an inordinate love of 
riches frequently causes the commission of great crimes." 
Here the words, "an inordinate love of riches" consti- 
tute the logical subject, and the words ' v frequently causes 
the commission of great crimes," constitute the logical 
predicate. Thus it is seen that an addition of certain 
words to the nominative forms the logical subject, and 
that an addition of words to the verb forms the logical 
predicate. These additional words often admit of being 
separately analyzed. If no such additional words be used, 
the nominative is said however to be both the gram- 
matical and logical subject, and the verb alone may 
likewise be both the grammatical and logical predicate. 

Specimen of etymological and s}ntactical parsing, 
including the exercise of analysis recommended in some 
grammars. 

An — is the indefinite article used before the singular noun love, and is 
immediately followed by a vowel in the word inordi- 
nate, and is so used according to Rule III. of Arrange- 
ment. 



SYNTAX. 53 

Inordinate — is an adjective in the positive state or degree of com- 
parison belonging to the noun love, according to Rule 
V. and is placed before the noun, according to Rule II. 
of Arrangement, and is compared by the adverbs more 
and most. 

Love — is a common noun, of the third person, in the singular number, 
neuter gender, in the nominative' case to the verb 
causes, [called also the grammatical subject, and when 
combined with the words "an inordinate" and the 
words "of riches" contributes with those words to 
form the logical subject, ] and is placed before the verb, 
according to Rule I. of Arrangement. 

Of — is a preposition governing the noun riches, according to Rule 
XI., and is placed before the noun according to Rule VI. 
of Arrangement. [It denotes the relation between love 
and riches. J 

Riches — a common noun, third person, plural number, but sometimes 
used in the singular, neuter gender and objective case, [or 
grammatical object] governed by of as before mentioned. 

Frequently — is an adverb of n anner added to the verb causes, and is 
placed near it, according to Rule V. of Arrangement. 

Causes — is a regular transitive verb [the grammatical predicate] in 
the indicative mode, present tense, indefinite form, third 
person, singular number, agreeing in person and num- 
ber, with its nominative lo ,r e. according to Rule I. 

The — is the definite article before the noun commission, Ruie III. of 
Arrangement. 

Commission — is a common noun, third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, objective case, governed by the verb 
causes, Rule VIII. |The words " the commission" may 
be called the logical object.] 

Of — is a prepos'tion governing the noun crimes, Rule XI. — r[or 
governing the logical object, great crimes, and showing 
the relation of that object to the word commission] and 
is placed according to Rule VI. of Arrangement. 

Great — is an adjective of the positive degree, belonging to the noun 
crimes, Rule V., and placed according to Rule JI. of 
Arrangement. 

Crimes — a common noun, third person, plural number, neuter gender, 
objective case, governed by of, as before mentioned, Rule 
XI. [The words "great crimes" express the logical 
object, the words " frequently causes the commission 
of great crimes " express the logical predicate. J 

The exercises in analysis are included in brackets, and 
can be used separately or together, with the common 
parsing in this and other sentences, at the option of 
instiuctors who will guard the scholar against any 
habitual neglect of syntactical parsing. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PUNCTUATION. 

This is by some writers presented as a part of ortho- 
graphy, and by others annexed to the rules of syntax. 
As the proper use of the characters in punctuation ex- 
hibits the component parts and construction of sentences, 
and affects the sense in a very considerable degree. 
Punctuation divides a written composition into periods, 
and those periods into their constituent parts. 

The following points and characters are used, and take 
their names from the sentences and clause which they 
severally distinguish. 

1. A period 

2. A parenthesis ( ) 

3. A comma , 

4. A semicolon ; 

5. A colon 

6. An interrogation point ? 

7. An exclamation point ! 
A clash or horizontal 

line 

A person well understanding the use of the comma, 
soon perceives the use of the other points. To under- 
stand the comma it is well to compare it in the first 
place with the parenthesis, the use of which is supposed 
to be generally known and easily understood. It includes 
words not essential to the construction of a sentence in 
which they are used, but explanatory of some part of it 
or independent of it, as consider (and may the consid- 
eration sink into your hearts) the fatal consequences of a 
wicked life. Now the comma is often used in the place 
of the parenthesis to which the use of the comma is 
analagous, and which may be exchanged for the comma 
when the parenthetical phrase is short, as Epicurus, we 
are told, left three hundred volumes of his works. Here 
it is seen that the words, we are told, might be included 
in a parenthesis, but those words comprising a very short 
sentence in the midst of a longer one, the comma is 
therefore preferred. A parenthetical phrase does not 
always occur in the midst of a sentence, but frequently 



PUNCTUATION. 55 

at the close, as Profane swearing does not proceed from 
any natural propensity, no man being born with a swear- 
ing constitution. When the words are more closely con- 
nected with the rest of the sentence, than those which 
are usually included in a parenthesis, they should be 
included by commas, as this globe, which we inhabit, is a 
planet. Here it is seen that to omit the words between 
the commas would not destroy the sentence, as this globe 
is a planet. The like observation applies to these 
examples, A pleasing variety is discernible, throughout 
the whole visible creation. A star, at the tail of the 
little bear, is called the polar star. Several such clauses 
may occur in the same sentence requiring a separation 
from each other by commas, and from the nominative 
and verb; as vices, like shadows, toward the evening of 
life, grow great and monstrous. The general rule res- 
pecting such clauses is supposed to be sufficiently easy 
and comprehensive, when added to the following relative 
to substantives, adjectives, verbs, &c. Three or more 
substantives in the same case are separated by commas, 
as climate, soil, laws, food, and other accidental differ- 
ences, have produced an astonishing variety, in the com- 
plexion, features, manners and faculties of the human 
species. Substantives connected in pairs by conjunc- 
tions, are not usually separated by commas, as there 
is a natural difference between modesty and impudence, 
virtue and vice, knowledge and ignorance. Three or 
more adjectives belonging to Ihe same noun are sepa- 
rated by commas, as sacred history is a simple, dis- 
passionate, impartial detail of facts. Adjectives in pairs 
are separated by commas between the pairs, as truth is 
fair and artless, uniform and consistent. Several verbs 
agreeing with the same nominative as well as several 
verbs in the infinitive, depending on one common word 
and immediately succeeding one another, are separated by 
commas, as virtue strengthens, consoles, entertains, ad- 
vises, and sustains us. The Spartan youth were accus- 
tomed to go barefoot, to lie on the ground, to suffer heat 
and cold, to live on the most ordinary food, to be engaged 
in continual exercise, and to be inured to blood and 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

wounds. Verbs are separated by commas in pairs, when 
they are connected by conjunctions, and several adverbs 
in immediate succession may be separated by commas, as 
a philosopher should examine every thing coolly, impar- 
tially, accurately, and rationally. 

A semicolon is placed between complete sentences fol- 
lowing each other, not wholly independent of each other, 
which frequently have the conjunction but or for between 
them, as loquacity storms the ear; but modesty gains 
esteem. 

Be wise to-day • 'tis madness to defer-. 
Next day the fatal precedent will plead-, 

Thus on, &c. i e. for 'tis madness, &c. For next 
day, &c. 

The intervention of no particular conjunction is neces- 
sary: the principal inquiry respects the degree of connec- 
tion between the adjoining sentences or clauses. When 
several detached sentences succeed one another, each 
forming complete sense, they are properly enough distin- 
tinguished by a period: yet when they are short and have 
a slight connection, the exact point may be omitted or 
diminished, and the semicolon used instead of the period, 
as "the epic poem creates admiration; tragedy forces 
tears from us ; comedy makes us laugh ; and pastoral pro- 
duces gentle and pleasing sensations. The colon and 
semicolon are often used for each other. 

The colon is designed to separate sentences more dis- 
tantly connected than those which are usually separated 
by the semicolon, as the ordinary reader does not relish 
what is sublime: it does not affect him. No man should 
be too positive : the wisest are often deceived. When a 
conjunction between the sentences is not expressed but 
understood, the colon is used in preference to the semi- 
colon. A conjunction between the foregoing sentences 
would form a closer connection and require a semicolon, 
as no man should be too positive; for the wisest are often 
deceived. 

The period as is generally known is placed at the 
end of a complete sentence. It is also used at the end 



PUNCTUATION. 57 

of abbreviations. No measured uniform time or exact 
proportions of pauses in reading is required by the 
punctuation; which is chiefly designed to show the 
grammatical construction of sentences and to remove 
ambiguities. In general, a slight pause or modulation 
of voice is proper at a comma, and some longer one at 
the semicolon, colon and period, but the number and 
duration of these depend on the subject of the compo- 
sition, and on the sound judgment and good taste of the 
reader. 

The note of interrogation is used at the end of a sen- 
tence when a question is expressed, and sometimes dis- 
tinguishes an interrogative sentence from the imperative 
mode, as Do you hear me ? 

A note of exclamation is a mark of wonder, surprise, 
grief or joy, as Light of my eyes ! he comes ! unlocked 
for joy! It is sometimes used in vociferation and an- 
xiety, as 

" A horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a horse ! " 

and it is sometimes used after some exclamatory irony, 
as " excellent guardian of the sheep! a wolf! 

The proper use of the dash or horizontal line is when 
the sentence breaks off abruptly ; where the sense is sus- 
pended, where a significant pause is required, or where 
there is an unexpected turn in the sentiment, as 

" If thou beest he but, oh ! how fallen ! 

Milton. 
A significant pause. 

Lord cardinal! if thou think'st on Heaven's bliss, 

Hold up thy hand, make signal of that hope 

He dies, and makes no sign! — Shakespeare's Henry VI. 

The dash is sometimes used for the parenthesis, as — 

Ye Persian dames, he said, to you belong 

Well may they please — the morals of my song. 

Collint. 



53 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ORTHOMETRY. 

Orthometry or Versification, is that part of Prosody 
which explains the manner of combining accented and 
unaccented syllables in poetry, according to certain laws 
established in the language, supposed to be analagous to 
the use of long and short syllables, or quantity, in the 
poetry of the ancients. In English verse there are four 
ways of combining accented and unaccented syllables, 
called measures or feet, by reason of the uniform and 
steady movement on the lines in reading resembling an 
even tread or marching of the feet. These four principal 
measures are called the Iambic, Trochaic, Dactyllic and 
Anapaestic feet. 

The Iambus is a foot of two syllables, the first sylla- 
ble short or unaccented, and the last syllable long or 
accented, as in the word resound. In Iambic verse it is 
easy to perceive that every second syllable is accented or 
emphatical, as 

" Ere morning stars his glowing chambers hung, 
Or songs of gladness woke an angel's tongue. 

Ye heights and depths resound, 

Resound, resound, ye depths and heights resound." 

The Trochee is the reverse of the Iambus, being a foot 
of two syllables, the first long or accented, and the second 
weak or unaccented, as truly. The short or weak sylla- 
ble is often omitted at the end of every second line, 
which may then be said to end with a semipede or half 
foot, as 

t; When the rosy morn appearing, 

Paints with gold the verdant lawn, 
Bees, on banks of thyme disporting. 
Sip the sweets, and hail the dawn." 

Sometimes the weak or unaccented syllable is omitted 
at the end of every line, as 

Lovely lasting peace of mind, 
Sweet delight of human kind. 

The Dactyl is a foot of three syllables, the first long 
or accented, and the two last short or unaccented, as in 
the word curious. Dactyllic measure seldom occurs. A 



ORTHOMETRY. 59 

supernumerary short or unaccented syllable may be 
placed at the beginning of the line, as in the first of these 
lines. 

" As over thy shoulder thou lookest to hush the hahe, 
Bleakly the blinding snow beats in thy hagged face. 

Southey. 

The Anapsest is a foot directly the reverse of the Dac- 
tyl being a foot of three syllables, the two first short or 
unaccented, and the last long or accented as in the word 
appertain. In anaptestic measure it is easy to perceive 
that every third syllable is long or accented, as 

" Not in party too high, nor in spirit too low, 
Not the least of a cdown, nor too much of a beau." 

Sometimes a line begins with an Iambic foot, as 

" The sweets of the forest shall fail, 
And winter discolor the year." 

Some one of these four measures or feet is ever the 
groundwork of the verse, but other feet are sometimes 
used in different parts of the lines according to certain 
rules, with the occasional use of five secondary feet, 
being the Spondee or foot of two syllables, both long or 
accented, as vast void; the Pyrrichius or foot of two 
syllables, both short or unaccented, as of a; the Anti- 
bacchus or foot of three syllables, the two first long or 
accented, and the last short or unaccented as glad voices ; 
the Tribacchus or foot of three syllables, all short or 
unaccented, as impetuous to the plain ; and the Amphi- 
brachus, a foot of three syllables, the first and last 
of which are short or unaccented, the second long or 
accented, as remember. The several measures or feet 
may be understood and remembered by a collection of 
the words which exemplify the feet, the short or unac- 
cented syllables being italicised : the others being long or 
accented. 



I 1. Iambus, resound. 
•3^1 2. Trochee, truly. 
•§"3 j 3. Dactyl, curious. 
£•§ 4. Anapaest, appertain. 

£5 I 



Spondee, vast void. 



<8 [ 2. Pyrrhichius, of a. 
Lntibacchus, glad 
>ibrachus, impeti 

the plain, 
.mphibraehus, remember. 



u\ 3. Antibacchus, glad voices. 
•g ] 4. Tribrachus, impetuous to 



the plain. 
[5. Ar 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The following examples by their proximity, may ren- 
der the difference of the measures more perceptible. 

Iambic Measure. 

Let these the brave triumphant victor grace, 
And warring nations part in leagues of peace/' 

Popes Homer. 

Trochaic Measure. 

" Lo! my fair, the morning lazy, 
Peeps abroad from yonder hill-, 
Phoebus rises red ami hazy, 
Frost has stopp'd the village mill." 

Dactyllic Measure. 

u Weary way wanderer, languid and sick at heart, 
Traveling painfully over the rugged road, 
Wild visaged wanderer," £c. — Sonthcy, 

Jnapcestic Measure. 

" May I govern my passions with absolute sway, 
And grow wiser and better as life wears away." 

Many varieties are formed from each of the four prin- 
cipal measures, by the means of different lengths of lines, 
as in the following examples : 

Iambic Measure. 
' Example 1. — Each line consisting of four Iambic feet, 
constituting long metre. 

" Each lonely scene shall thee restore, 
For thee the tear be duly shed, 
Beloved, till life can charm no more, 
And mourn'd, till Pity's self be dead." — Collins. 

Example 2. — The first and third lines consisting of 
four Iambic feet, and the second and fourth lines con- 
sisting of three such feet ; the four lines exhibiting com- 
mon metre. 

11 Ten thousand thousand precious gifts, 
My daily thanks employ; 
Nor is the least a cheerful heart, 

That tastes those gifts with joy." — Addison. 



ORTHOMETRY. 61 

Trochaic Measure, 

Example 1. — Each line consisting of three Trochaic 
feet, with a semipede or half foot, at the end of the lines, 
excepting a Dactyl in the first and third lines. 

" Childhood happiest stage of life, 
Free from care and free from strife, 
Free from memory's ruthless reign, 
Fraught with scenes of former pain," fyc. 

Example 2. — Each line containing two feet, with a 
semipede. 

" In the days of old, 
Stories plainly told," $c. 

Anapaestic Measure. 

Example 1. — Each line containining three Anapaests. 

u Not a pine in my grove is there seen, 
But with tendrils of woodbine is bound." — Shenstone. 

Example 2. — The third line having four Anapaests, and 
the fourth line having three. The other lines begin with 
an Iambic foot, the first line ending with a supernumerary 
short syllable. 

" How fair is the rose! what a beautiful flower! 
The glory of April and May, 
But the leaves are beginning to fade in an hour, 
And they wither and die in a day." 

Other varieties of the principal measures often occur. 

Mixed measure of which the ground work is the 
Iambic foot. 

'Tis done; dread winter spreads his latest gloom, 
And reigns tremendous o'er the conquer'd year •, 
How dead the vegetable kingdom lies ! 
How dumb the tuneful: fyc. — Thomson. 

By dividing the foregoing lines into their component 
feet, they may be scanned as follows : — 

Iambus, Spondee, Iambus, Iambus, Iambus, 

resound, vast void, resound, resound, resound. 

'Tis done ; — dread win — ter spreads — his la — test gloom. 

6 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Iambus, Iambus, Iambus, Iambus, Iambus. 

resound, resound, resound, resound, resound, 



And reigns — tremen — dous o'er — the con — quered year; 

General rules showing in what parts of the line the 
several feet may be used in Heroic measure in which the 
Iambic foot is the ground work of the verse, each line 
consisting of five feet. 

1. The Iambus is used in any part of the line and is 
graceful in every part, as 

Around his brows a golden cloud she spread, 

A stream of glory flamed above his head. — Pope's Homer. 

2. The Trochee may be used in the first foot, and is 
most graceful before a Spondee, as 

" Down the tall steep their bursting summits roll." — Dwight. 

3. The Trochee is sometimes used in the second foot ; 
and Milton has used it in the third, in this line, 

" Eve rightly calFd Mother of all mankind." 

4. The Dactyl may be used in the first foot, as 
" Annual along the bright ecliptic road." — Thomson. 

5. The Anapaest is occasionally used in every foot, 
except the first. 

6. The Spondee may be used in any part of the line. 

7. The Pyrrhichius is sometimes used in the first foot, 
with rather a feeble effect, as 

u Nor in the helpless orphan dread a foe. — Pope^s Homer ] s Odyssey, 

8. It may be used in the second, third and fourth feet. 

9. It is sometimes used in the last foot, as 

" Stray in the pleasant paths of poesy.' 1 '' — Southey. 

10. The Antibacchus and the Amphibrachus are used 
only at the end of the line. 

11. The Tribrachus may be used in the third and 
fourth feet. 



ORTHOMETRY. 63 

It is seen that measures or feet, rather than rhyme, are 
essential to poetry ; rhyme being merely the correspon- 
dence of similar sounds at the ends of the lines. A 
single line in poetry is often called a verse. Poetry 
without rhyme is blank verse, a complete line consisting 
of five feet, the Iambic being the ground work. A 
single line affords melody. Several lines compared afford 
harmony. Melody is derived from the stated number of 
feet in the line, and often from the appropriate use of the 
rhetorical figure called Personification. The perception 
of similar feet and similar poetical pauses and rhymes in 
several lines constitutes harmony. 

As to the poetical pauses which add to melody and 
harmony, they are the csesural and final. The latter end 
every line, whether it be marked by a sentential pause 
or character in punctuation or not, and is to be regarded 
in reading so as to distinguish each line from others. 
The csesural pause divides the line into equal or unequal 
parts, and is sometimes independent of the sentential 
pauses denoted by punctuation, and sometimes coincides 
with them. These poetical pauses are not of constant 
occurrence, except the final pause, but deserve the notice 
of students and readers. Those who would direct their 
inquiries upon this topic, beyond the proper limits of a 
Manual of this kind, are referred to Kaimes' Elements 
of Criticism, Sheridan's Rhetorical Grammar, to Noah 
Webster's and Lindley Murray's Essays on Prosody, and 
to the writings of the best poets. 

Examples of melody afforded by each line, and of har- 
mony arising from the reader's comparison of the simi- 
larity of the feet, csesural pause and rhyme are seen in 
these lines — 

" Warms in the sun, refreshes in the breeze, 
Glows in the stars, and blossoms in the trees. 
Lives through all life, extends through all extent, fyc. 

Here each line is similar to the others in commencing 
with a Trochaic foot, followed by two Iambics, which are 
succeeded in each line by two short syllables, each line 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ending with an Iambic foot, while a further similarity 
occurs at the end of the second foot in the use of the 
csesural pause; but all these contributions to harmony 
do not constantly occur. The final pause, without its 
coincidence with any other, is observed in these lines of 
Milton. 

Thus with the year 

Seasons return, but not to me returns 

Bay, or the sweet approach of even or morn. 

In reading verse all the words should be pronounced 
as in prose, laying no stress upon unaccented syllables; 
and every foot should be pronounced in equal time with 
the others, or nearly so, dwelling lightly upon syllables 
usually accented when they stand in the places of unac- 
cented syllables, as do the words grow and wears in this 
couplet, — 

" May T govern my passions with absolute sway, 
And grow wiser and better as life wears away." 

To describe, at length, the different subjects of poetry, 
as the Epic, Lyric, &c, would transcend the proper limits 
of a Manual of this kind. Pastoral poetry, supposed to 
be of Oriental origin, describes the early shepherd's life, 
or that of rural nymphs and swains;, and requires an 
elegant simplicity of style, as do such songs and hymns 
as are set to music. Lyric poetry is applied to the com- 
position of songs, hymns and odes. An Epic or Heroic 
poem is a poetical narration of the important actions of 
some person celebrated in the poem as those of iEneas, 
in Virgil, or the exploits of Achilles in the Illiad of 
Homer. 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 



We have read the manuscript copy of a " Manual of Practical 
English Grammar," by H. Munsell, Jr., and believing it to be in 
many respects an improvement upon similar treatises now in use; 
cheerfully advise its publication and recommend its use in the schools 
of the State. 

Subscribed by 

Hon. L. CHANDLER BALL, 
C. H. GARDNER, A. M., Prin- 
cipal of Ball Seminary. 
Hoosick Falls, N. Y. 
January, 1851. 



From J. B. WILKINS, Counsellor, &c, and for- 
merly County Superintendent of Schools for Rensselaer 
County, N. Y. 

I have attentively read a " Manual of Practical English Gram- 
mar,''' 1 written by Hez. Munsell, Jr., of Hoosick Falls, N. Y., and 
1 consider it a very useful work, simplifying many intricate parts of 
grammar, and especially the Etymological part. The rules of 
Syntax are full and well chosen; and the subjects of Punctuation 
and Orthometry judiciously and plainly treated. I consider the 
whole of the Manual a valuable improvement which merits the 
patronage of the friends of education. 

J. B. WILKINS. 

Trot, N.Y. 
January, 1851. 



66 Recommendations. 

Recommendation from Rer. William Arthur, A. M. 

Having examined in manuscript a Manual of English Grammar 
by Mr. Munsell, from its perspicuity and brevity I think it well 
calculated to subserve the design of the author in rendering the 
study of the English language, to the pupil, both easy and com- 
prehensive. 

WILLIAM ARTHUR. 

Hoosick, N. Y. 

February, 1851. 



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